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• ܐܶܒ݂ܠܳܐ
• λυπέω
• λύπη
• ὀδύνη
•   (only first 3 shown)
• חָלָה , חָלָה
• חֳלִי
• יָגָה , נוגּ
•   (only first 3 shown)

(represented by numerous Heb. words, Gr. λύπη ). The Oriental exhibits affliction over public or private misfortune, especially the death of a beloved relative or friend, by much more demonstrative signs than the European, although the degree of connection between the deceased and the mourner, and the greater or more moderate vehemence of character of the bereaved individual, naturally cause a certain modification of his grief, which is too apt to be lost sight of by archaeologists. The customs of the ancient Hebrews were in this respect little different from those of modern Orientals, and therefore derive ready elucidation from the accounts of modern travellers. In the most violent outburst of sorrow, in the instantaneous overflow of lamentation, they wrung their hands above the head (2 Samuel 13:19), or beat the breast with them (Nahum 2:8; Luke 18:13; comp. Joseph. Ant. 16:7, 5: סָפד , κόπτεσθαι ; see Homer, Il. ii, 700: Herodotus, it, 85; Lucian, Luct. 12; Appian, Pun. 43; Virgil, AEn. 4:673; 12:871; Martial, ii, 11, 5; Petron. 111), or smote them upon the thigh (Jeremiah 31:19; comp. Polyb. 15:27, 11; Hom. Odys. ' 13:198; Plant. Trucul. ii, 7, 42; see Dougtaei Analect, i, 274) or on the head (Josephus, Ant. 16:10, 7), tore the beard and hair (Ezra 9:3; Job i, 20; comp. Joseph. Ant. 15:3, 9; 16:7, 5; Barhebr. Chronicles p. 256; Virgil, AEn. 12:870; Ovid, Met. 11:746; Apul. Met. 9: p. 212, Bip.; Curtius, iii, 11, 25; Petron. 111,113; Martial, ii, 11, 5), strewed ashes (see Carpzov, De cinerum op. Hebr, usu. maroris atque luctus τεκμηρίῳ, Rost. 1739) on the head (1 Samuel 4:12; 2 Samuel 1:2; 2 Samuel 13:19; 2 Samuel 15:32; Nehemiah 9:1; Ezekiel 27:30; Lamentations 2:10; Job 2:11; 1 Maccabees 3:47; 1 Maccabees 4:39; 1 Maccabees 11:71; 2 Maccabees 10:26; 2 Maccabees 14:15; Judith 9:1; 3 Maccabees 4:6; Revelation 18:19; Josephus, War, ii, 12, 5; 15, 4; Ant. 20:6,1; comp. Homer, Il. 18:23 sq.; 24:164; Eurip. Suppl. 827; Hecub. 496; Diod. Sic. i, 72, 917 Lucian, Luct. 127 Apulej. Metam. 9:p. 212, Bip.; see Burckhardt, Nubia, p. 475; Irwin, Trav. p. 303, 307; Kirchmann, Defuner. Rom. ii, 12; Mishna, Taanith, ii, 1), or rolled themselves in dust and ashes (Ezekiel 27:30; comp. Homer, Il. 22:414; 24:640; Lucian, Luct. 12), tore the garments (see Hede-nus. De scissione vest. Ebraeis ac gentibus usitata, Jen. 1663; also in Ugolini Thes. xxix; Wichmannshausen, De laceratione vestium ap. Hebr. Viteb. 1716; also in Ugolino, xxxiii: this rending; however, had certain restrictions, Otho, Lex. Rabb. p. 360; see also Ugolino, De sacerdotio, ch. vi. in his Thesaur. xiii) from their breast (Genesis 37:29; Genesis 44:13; Judges 11:36; 1 Samuel 4:12; 2 Samuel 1:2; 2 Samuel 1:11; 2 Samuel 3:31; 1 Kings 21:27; 2 Kings 4:8; 2 Kings 6:30; 2 Kings 11:14; 2 Kings 19:17; 2 Kings 22:11; Ezra 9:3; Esther 4:1; 1 Maccabees 2:14-17; 1 Maccabees 3:47; 1 Maccabees 4:39; 1 Maccabees 5:14; 1 Maccabees 11:71; 1 Maccabees 13:45; Judith 14:13; Judith 14:15; Jeremiah 41:5; Ep. Jeremiah 30; Joseph. War, ii, 15, 2 and 4; Acts 14:14; Mishna, Moed Katon, iii, 7; Shab. 13:3; comp. Barhebr. Chronicles p. 256; Herod. iii, 66; 8:99; Lucian, Luct. 12; Achil. Tat. 4:6; Curtius, iii, 11, 25; 4:107 23; v, 12,13, 31; 10:5, 17; Sueton. Caes. 33; Nero, 42; Dougtaei Analect. i, 118; Arvieux, iii, 282), lacerated even their face and body (Jeremiah 16:6; Jeremiah 41:5; Jeremiah 47:5; Ezekiel 24:17; comp. Appian, Pun. 46; Virgil, AEn. 4:673; 12:871; Cicero, Leg. ii, 23, 59; Petron. 16:111: Ruppell, Abyss. ii, 57), though this last (see Wich- mannshausen, De corpore scissuris figurisque non crue-tando, Viteb.; Michaelis, De incisura propter mortuos, in his Observ. sacr. Arnhem. 1752, p. 131 sq.) was forbidden by the Mosaic law (Leviticus 19:28; Deuteronomy 14:1 sq.), as it was in the twelve Roman tables (Cic. Leg. ii, 23 sq.).

These marks of deep grief were usually combined together. At protracted and regularly appointed seasons of mourning (for the deceased), persons were accustomed to fast (q.v.), put on mourning-weeds, (See SACKCLOTH), cover up the lower part of the countenance (Ezekiel 24:17; Ezekiel 24:22; Micah 3:7; comp. Esther 7:8) or the entire head (2 Samuel 15:30; 2 Samuel 19:4; Jeremiah 14:3-4; Homer, Od. 4:154; 8:92), neglect to wash and anoint themselves (comp. Diod. Sic. i, 72 and 91), or cleanse their clothes (2 Samuel 14:2; 2 Samuel 19:24; comp. 2 Samuel 12:20; Daniel 10:3; Judith 10:2 sq.), and abstain from all ornament (Ezekiel 26:16 [compare 24:17]; Jonah iii, 6; Judith 10:3; comp. Homer, Il. 22:468;-Lycophron, Cassand. 862; Livy, 9:7; 34:7; Sueton. Octav. 100), even laying aside their shoes (2 Samuel 15:30; Ezekiel 24:17; Ezekiel 24:23), and, as a special token of humiliation, shearing off the beard and hair, the pride of an Oriental (Isaiah 15:2; Jeremiah 7:29; Jeremiah 16:6; Jeremiah 41:5; Jeremiah 48:37; Ep. Jeremiah 12; Amos 8:10; Micah 1:16; Ezekiel 7:18; Ezekiel 27:31; comp. Homer, Il. 23:46 sq.; Od. 4:197; 24:45 sq.; Euripid. Orest. 458; Alcest. 427; Diod. Sic. i, 84; AElian, V. H. 7:8; Herod. 4:71; 9:24; Curtius, 10:5,17; Sueton. Calig. 5; Ovid, Ars. Am. iii, 38). In deep grief they also seated or lay themselves on the ground (2 Samuel 12:16; 2 Samuel 13:31; Isaiah 3:20; Isaiah 47:1 [Ezekiel 8:14]; Jonah 3:6; Nehemiah 1:4; Job 2:8; Job 16:15; Matthew 11:21, etc.; comp. Josephus, Ant. 19:8, 2; Philo, Opp. ii, 519; Homer, Il. 18:26; see Kype, Observ. i, 261). Mourning usually lasted seven days (1 Samuel 31:13; 1 Chronicles 10:12; Judith 16:29; Sirach 22:12; Joseph. Ant. 17:8, 4; comp. Heriod. 7:11; Lucian, Dea Syr. 52 sq.; see Movers, Phonic. p. 200); in extraordinary cases, longer (Numbers 20:29; Deuteronomy 21:18; Joseph. War, iii, 9, 5). Wealthy persons were accustomed to hire professional mourning women מְקוֹנְנוֹת, proficae, Jeremiah 9:16), who uttered loud wailing cries in the house and at the grave during the days of mourning (2 Chronicles 35:25), often in responsive chants (Moed Katon, iii, 8), and with instrumental accompaniment (Chel. 16:7). The same custom is well known to have prevailed among the Greeks (see Potter, Antiq. ii, 407 sq.) and Romans. On the usages of the modern East, see Mayr, Schicksale, ii, 87. Public mourning was instituted upon general calamities; the Jews were also obliged to take part in lamentation for the death of (heathen) rulers (Philo, Opp. ii, 525; comp. Livy, 9:7). It was a peculiarity of Persian usage that no mourner could enter the royal palace (Esther 4:2), such probably being regarded as uncleanly by the Zend religion (Creuzer, Symbol. i, 712). See generally Geier, De Ebraeorum luctu luqentiumque ritibus (Lips. 1656; ed. by Kall, Hafn. 1745; also in Ugolini Thesaur. xxxiii); Otho, Lex. Rabb. p. 390; on the Grecian usages, Nicolai, De luctu Graecorum (Marb. 1698), and Lange, Observatt. sacr. p. 346 sq.; on modern Persian. Chardin, Voyage, 6:485 sq. (See MOURNING); (See FUNERAL),