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(δειπνέω ). Our information on this subject is but scanty. The early Hebrews do not seem to have given special names to their several meals, for the terms rendered "dine" and " dinner" in the A.V. (Genesis 43:1-6; Proverbs 15:17) are in reality general expressions, which might more correctly be rendered "eat" and "portion of food." In the New Test. we have the Greek terms ἄριστον, and δεῖπνον, which the A. V. renders respectively "dinner" and "supper" (Luke 14:12; John 21:12), but which are more properly "breakfast" and, dinner." There is some uncertainty as to the hours at which the meals were taken. The Egyptians undoubtedly took their principal meal at noon (Genesis 43:16); laborers took a light meal at that time (Ruth 2:14; comp. Ruth 2:17); and occasionally that early hour: was devoted to excess and reveling (1 Kings 20:16). It has been inferred from those passages (somewhat too hastily, we think) that the principal meal generally took place hat noon. The Egyptians do, indeed, still make a substantial meal at that time (Lane, Mod. Egypt. 1, 189), but there: are indications that the Jews rather followed the custom that prevails among the Bedawin, and made their principal meal after sunset, and a lighter meal at about 9 or 10 A.M. (Burckhardt, Notes, 1, 64). For instance, "Lot prepared a feast for the two angels at even" (Genesis 19:1-3); Boaz evidently took his meal late in the evening (Ruth 3:7); the Israelites ate flesh in the evening, and bread only, or manna, in the morning (Exodus 16:12); the context seems to imply that Jethro's feast was in the evening (Exodus 16:18; Exodus 16:12; Exodus 16:14). But, above all, the institution of the Paschal feast in the evening seems to imply that the principal meal was usually taken then: it appears highly improbable that the Jews would have been ordered to eat meat at an unusual time. In the later Biblical period we have clearer notices to the same effect.

Breakfast took place in the morning (John 21:4; John 21:12), on ordinary days not before 9 o'clock, which was the first hour of prayer (Acts 2:15), and on the Sabbath not before 12, when the service of the synagogue was completed (Josephus, Life, § 54); the more prolonged and substantial meal took place in the evening (ibid. § 44; War, 1, 17, 4). The general tenor of the parable of the great supper certainly implies that the feast took place in the working- hours of the day (Luke 14:15-24); but we may regard this, perhaps, as part of the imagery of the parable rather than as a picture of real life. (See SUPPER).

The posture at meals varied at different periods. There is sufficient evidence that the old Hebrews were in the habit of sitting (Genesis 27:19; Judges 19:6; 1 Samuel 20:5; 1 Samuel 20:24; 1 Kings 13:20), but it does not hence follow that they sat on chairs; they may have squatted on the ground, as was the occasional, though not perhaps the general, custom of the ancient Egyptians (Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt. 1, 58, 181). The table was in this case but slightly elevated above the ground as is still the case in Egypt. At the same time, the chair was not unknown to the Hebrews, but seems to have been regarded as a token of dignity. The Hebrew term is kisse (כּסֵּא ). There is only one instance of its being mentioned as an article of ordinary furniture viz. in 2 Kings 4:10, where the A.V. incorrectly renders it "stool." Even there it seems probable that it was placed more as a mark of special honor to the prophet than for common use. As luxury increased, the practice of sitting was exchanged for that of reclining. The first intimation of this occurs in the prophecies of Amos, who reprobates those "that lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch themselves upon their couches" (Amos 6:4); and it appears that the couches themselves were of a costly character-the "corners" or edges (3, 12: the word is pedh, פֵּאָה, which will apply to the edge as well as to the angle of a couch. That the seats and couches of the Assyrians were handsomely ornamented appears from the specimens given by Layard [Nineveh, 2, 300302]), being finished with ivory, and the seat covered with silk or damask coverlets; (The A. V. has "in Damascus in a couch;" but there can be no doubt that the name of the town was transferred to the silk stuffs manufactured there, which are still known by the name of "damask.") Ezekiel, again, inveighs against one who sat on a stately bed with a table prepared before it" (Ezekiel 23:41).

The custom may have been borrowed, in the first instance, from the Babylonians and Syrians, among whom it prevailed at an early period (Esti. 1, 6; 7:8). A similar-change took place in the habits of the Greeks, who are represented in the Heroic Age as sitting (Il. 10, 578; Od. 1, 145), but who afterwards adopted the habit of reclining, women and children excepted. Sitting appears to have been the posture usual among the Assyrians on the occasion of great festivals. A bas-relief on the walls of Khorsabad represents the guests seated on high chairs (Layard. Nineveh, 2, 411). In the time of our Savior reclining was the universal custom, as is implied in the terms (ἀνακεῖσθαι, κατακεῖσθαι, ἀνακλίνεσθαι, κατακλίνεσθαι ) used for "sitting at meat," as the A..V. incorrectly has it. The couch itself (κλίνη ) is only once mentioned (Mark 7:4; A. V. "tables"), but there can be little doubt that the Roman triclinium had been introduced, and that the arrangements of the table resembled those described by classical writers. Generally speaking, only three persons reclined on each couch, but occasionally four, or even five. The couches were provided with cushions, on which the left elbow rested in support of the upper part of the body, while the right arm remained free. A room provided with these was described as ἐστρωμένον, lit. "spread" (14, 15; AV. "furnished"). As several guests reclined on the same couch, each overlapped his neighbor, as it were, and rested his head on or near the breast of the one who lay behind him; he was then said to "lean on the bosom" of his neighbor (ἀνακεῖσθαι ἐν τῷ κόλπῳ, John 13:23; John 21:20; comp. Pliny, Epist. 4:22). The close proximity into which persons were thus brought rendered it more than usually agreeable that friend should be next to friend, and it gave the opportunity of making confidential communications (John 13:25). The ordinary arrangement of the couches was in three sides of a square, the fourth being left open for the servants to bring up the dishes. The couches were denominated respectively the highest, the middle, and the lowest couch; the three guests on each couch were also denominated highest, middle, and lowest-the terms being suggested by the circumstance of the guest who reclined on another's bosom always appearing to be below him. The protokisic (πρωτοκλισία, Matthew 23:6), which the Pharisees so much coveted, was not, as the A. V. represents it, "the uppermost room," but the highest seat in the highest couch-the seat numbered 1 in the annexed diagram. (See ACCUBATION).

Some doubt attends the question whether the females took their meals along with the males. The present state of society in the East throws no. light upon this subject, as the customs of the harem date from the time of Mohammed. The cases of Ruth amid the reapers (Ruth 2:14), of Elkanah with his wives (1 Samuel 1:4), of Job's sons and daughters (Job 1:4), and the general intermixture of the sexes in daily life, make it more than probable that they did so join, at the same time, as the duty of attending upon the guests devolved upon them (Luke 10:40), they probably took a somewhat irregular and briefer repast. (See DINE).

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