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Bible Encyclopedias
Woman
Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature
or (Heb. אשׁהְֶ , ishshih [plur. נָשׁים, a masc. form contracted for אְַנָשַׁים , men], fem. of אישׁ, ish, as vira [in virago] from vir, and ἀνδρίς from ἀνήρ), like our own term woman, is in the Hebrew (and so the Greek, γυνή') used of married and unmarried females. (See MAN).
I. Original Position of the Sex. — The derivation of the word shows that, according to the conception of the ancient Israelites, woman was man in a modified form one of the same race, the same genus, as man, a kind of female man. How slightly modified that form is, how little in essential structure woman differs from man. physiology has made abundantly clear. Variant, however, in make as man and woman are, they differ still more in character; and yet the great features of their hearts and minds so closely resemble each other, that it requires no depth of vision to see that these twain are one! This most important fact is characteristically set forth in the Bible in the account given of the formation of woman out of one of Adam's ribs: a representation to which currency may have the more easily been given, from the apparent space there is between the lowest rib and the bones on which the trunk is supported. "And Adam said, This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of man." An immediate and natural inference is forthwith made touching the intimacy of the marriage-bond: "Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife, and they shall be one flesh" (Genesis 2:21-24). This narrative is hence effectively appealed to as supplying an argument for enforcing the duties of the husband towards the wife (Ephesians 5:28-31). Those who have been pleased to make free with this simple narrative may well be required to show how a rude age could more effectually have been taught the essential unity of man and woman — a unity of nature which demands, and is perfected only in, a unity of soul. The conception of the Biblical writer goes beyond even this, but does not extend further than science and experience unite to justify. There was solid reason why it was not good for Adam "to be alone." Without a helpmeet he would have been an imperfect being. The genus homo consists of man and woman. Both are necessary to the idea of man. The one supplements the qualities of the other. They are not two, but one flesh, and as one body so one soul.
The entire aim, then, of the narrative in Genesis was, by setting forth certain great physical facts, to show the essential unity of man and woman, yet the dependence of the latter on the former; and so to encourage and foster the tenderest and most considerate love between the two, founded on the peculiar qualities of each pre-eminence, strength, intellectual power, and wisdom on the one side; reliance, softness, grace, and beauty on the other — at the same time that the one set of excellences lose all their worth unless as existing in the possession of the other. Many usages of early times interfered with the preservation of this theoretical equality: we may instance the existence of polygamy, the autocratic powers vested in the head of the family under the patriarchal system, and the treatment of captives. Nevertheless a high tone was maintained generally on this subject by the Mosaic law, and, as far as we have the means of judging, by the force of public opinion.
II. Condition of Ancient Hebrew Females. —
1. Liberty. — Women appear to have enjoyed considerably more freedom among the Jews than is now allowed them in western Asia, although in other respects their condition and employments seem to have been not dissimilar. At present, women of all ranks are much confined to their own houses, and never see the men who visit their husbands or fathers, and in towns they never go abroad without their persons and facesbeing completely shrouded they also take their meals apart from the males, even of their own family. But in the rural districts they enjoy more freedom, and often go about unveiled Among the Jews, women were somewhat less restrained in their intercourse with men, and did not generally conceal their faces when they went abroad. Only one instance occurs in Scripture of women eating with men (Ruth 2:14), but that was at a simple refection, and only illustrates the greater freedom of rural manners. Instead of being immured in a harem, or appearing in public with the face covered, the wives and maidens of ancient times mingled freely and openly with the other sex in the duties and amenities of ordinary life. Rebelah travelled on a camel with her face unveiled, until she came into the presence of her affianced (Genesis 24:64-65). Jacob saluted Rachel with a kiss in the presence of the shepherds (Genesis 29:11).
Each of these maidens was engaged in active employment, the former in fetching water from the well, the latter in tending her flock. Sarah wore no veil in Egypt, and yet this formed no ground for supposing her to be married (Genesis 12:14-19). An outrage on a maiden in the open field was visited with the severest punishment (Deuteronomy 22:25-27), proving that it was not deemed improper for her to go about unprotected. Further than this, women played no inconsiderable part in public celebrations: Miriam headed a band of women who commemorated with song and dance the overthrow of the Egyptians (Exodus 15:20-21); Jephthah's daughter gave her father a triumphal reception (Judges 11:34); the maidens of Shiloh danced publicly in the vineyards at the yearly feast (Judges 21:21); and the women feted Saul and David, on their return from the defeat of the Philistines, with singing and dancing (1 Samuel 18:6-7). The odes of Deborah (Judges 5) and of Hannah (1 Samuel 2:1, etc.) exhibit a degree of intellectual cultivation which is in itself a proof of the, position of the sex in that period. Women also occasionally held public offices, particularly that of prophetess or inspired teacher, as instanced in Miriam (Exodus 15:20), Huldah (2 Kings 22:14), Noadiah (Nehemiah 6:14), Anna (Luke 2:36), and above all Deborah, who applied her prophetical gift to the administration of public affairs, and so was entitled to be styled a "judge" (Judges 4:4). The active part taken by Jezebel in the government of Israel (1 Kings 18:13; 1 Kings 21:25), and the usurpation of the throne of Judah by Athaliah (2 Kings 11:3), further attest the latitude allowed to women in public life.
2. The employments of the women were very various, and sufficiently engrossing. In the earlier or patriarchal state of society, the daughters of, men of substance tended their fathers' flocks (Genesis 29:9; Exodus 2:16). In ordinary circumstances, the first labor of the day was to grind corn and bake bread. The other cares of the family occupied the rest of the day. The women of the peasantry and of the poor consumed much time in collecting fuel, and in going to the wells for water. The wells were usually outside the towns, and the labor of drawing water from them was by no means confined to poor women. This was usually, but not always, the labor of:the evening; and the water was carried in earthen vessels borne upon the shoulder (Genesis 24:15-20; John 4:7; John 4:28). Working with the needle also occupied much of their time, as it would seem that not only their own clothes but those of the men were made by the women. Such garments, at all events, were either for the use of the family (1 Samuel 2:19; Proverbs 31:21), for sale (Proverbs 31:14; Proverbs 31:24), or for charity (Acts 9:39). Some of the needlework was very fine, and much valued (Exodus 26:36; Exodus 28:39; Judges 5:30; Psalms 45:14). The women appear to have spun the yarn for all the cloth that was in use (Exodus 35:25; Proverbs 31:19); and much of the weaving seems also to have been executed by them (Judges 16:13-14; Proverbs 31:22). The tapestries for bed-coverings, mentioned in the last-cited text, were probably produced in the loom, and appear to have been much valued (Proverbs 7:16). (See HANDICRAFT).
The value of a virtuous and active housewife forms a frequent topic in the book of Proverbs (Proverbs 11:16; Proverbs 12:4; Proverbs 14:1; Proverbs 31:10, etc.). Her influence was, of course, proportionably great; and, where there was no second wife, she controlled the arrangements of the house, to the extent of inviting or receiving guests on her own motion (Judges 4:18; 1 Samuel 25:18, etc.; 2 Kings 4:8, etc.). The effect of polygamy was to transfer female influence from the wives to the mother, as is incidentally shown in the application of the term gebirah (literally meaning powerful) to the queen mother (1 Kings 2:19; 1 Kings 15:13; 2 Kings 10:13; 2 Kings 24:12; Jeremiah 13:18; Jeremiah 29:2). Polygamy also necessitated a separate establishment for the wives collectively, or for each individually. Thus, in the palace of the Persian monarch there was a "house of the women" (Esther 2:9), which was guarded by eunuchs (2:3); in Solomon's palace the harem was connected with, but separate from, the rest of the building (1 Kings 7:8); and on journeys each wife had her separate tent (Genesis 31:33). In such cases it is probable that the females took their meals apart from the males (Esther 1:9); but we have no reason to conclude that the separate system prevailed generally among the Jews. The women were present at festivals, either as attendants on the guests (John 12:2), or as themselves guests (Job 1:4; John 2:3); and hence there is good ground for concluding that on ordinary occasions also they joined the males at meals, though there is no positive testimony to that effect. (See EATING).
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