the textures may change places at pleasure, as in Kidderminster carpets; or, from three to twelve textures may be woven simultane - ously, and united, as in belting cloth. There may be from one to three threads of face warp to one of back, and the wefting may or may not correspond with the warping. Fig. 16 shows the face and ¦¦¦¦¦¦¦ ¦¦ ILO¦¦¦ ¦¦¦¦ 11% 11 91111° ' '10101: ¦¦ FIG. 6. - Reclining Twill.
FIG. 8. - Zigzag.
FIG. 15. - Figuring with Extra Weft.
[[[Industrial Technicology]] looped over a wire. At B the circles are repeated to show how the ground warp intersects the weft.
tudinal sections of a double pile fabric. The circles A, B are weft threads in the upper and lower fabrics respectively; the lines that interlace with these wefts are pile warp threads which pass vertically from one fabric to the other. At C, D the circles are repeated to show how the ground warps intersect the wefts, and at E the arrows indicate the cutting point.
Group 4. Crossed Weaving. - This group includes all fabrics in which the warp threads intertwist amongst themselves to give intermediate effects between ordinary weaving and lace, as in gauzes. Also those in which some warp threads are laid transversely in a piece to imitate embroidery, as in lappets.
FIG. 16. - Compound Fabric.
FIG. 22. - Plain Gauze.
used to manufacture a given fabric were similar in essentials, although in structural details they differed greatly. Prior to the invention of the fly shuttle by John Kay, in 1733, no far-reaching invention had for generations been applied to the hand-loom, and subsequently the Jacquard machine and multiple shuttle boxes represent the chief changes. A hand-loom as used in Europe at the present time (see fig. 24) has the warp coiled evenly upon a beam whose gudgeons are laid in open steps formed in the loom framing. Two ropes are coiled round this beam, and weighted to prevent the warp from being given off too freely. From the beam the threads pass alter - nately over and under two lease rods, then separately through the eyes of the shedding harness, in pairs between the dents of a reed, and finally they are attached to a cloth roller. For small patterns healds are used to form sheds, but for large ones a Jacquard machine is required. Healds may be made of twine, of wire or of twine loops into which metal eyes, called mails, are threaded. But they usually consist of a number of strings which are secured above and below upon wooden laths called shafts, and each string is knotted near the middle to form a small eye. From two to twenty-four pairs of shafts may be employed, but the healds they carry must collectively equal the number of threads in the warp. These healds will be equally or unequally distributed upon the shafts according to the nature of the pattern to be woven, and the threads will be drawn through the eyes in a predetermined order. The upper shafts are suspended from pulleys or levers, and the lower ones are attached directly or indirectly to treadles placed near the floor. The weaver depresses these treadles with his feet in a sequence suited to the pattern, and the scheme of drawing the warp through the healds. When a treadle is pressed down, at least one pair of shafts will be lifted above the others, and the warp threads will ascend or descend with the healds to form a shed for a shuttle, containing weft, to he passed through (see Shuttle). The reed (fig. 25) is the instrument FIG. 25. - Weaver's Reed.
by which weft is beaten into position in the cloth; it also determines the closeness of the warp threads, and guides a moving shuttle from side to side. It is made by placing strips of flattened wire between two half round ribs of wood, and binding the whole together by passing tarred twine between the wires and round the ribs. Such a reed is placed in the lower portion of a batten, which is suspended from the upper framework of the loom. In front of the reed, and immediately below the warp, the projecting batten forms a race for the shuttle to travel upon from side to side. Before Kay's invention a shuttle was thrown between the divided warp and caught at the opposite selvage, but Kay continued the projecting batten on both sides of the warp space, and constructed boxes at each end. Over each box he mounted a spindle, and upon it a driver, or picker. Bands connected both pickers to a stick which the weaver held in his right hand, while with the left hand he controlled the batten. Thus: a treadle is pressed down by one foot to form a shed; the batten is pushed back till a sufficient portion of the shed is brought in front of the reed, and the depressed threads lie upon the shuttle race; a clear way is thus provided for the shuttle. A quick move - ment of the stick tightens the cord attached to a picker and projects the shuttle from one box to the other. The batten is now drawn forward, and the reed beats up the weft left by the shuttle. As the next treadle is depressed to form another division of the warp for the return movement of the shuttle, the last length of weft is en - wrapped between intersecting warp threads, and the remaining movements follow in regular succession (see fig. 26).
In cases where the weft forms parti-coloured stripes across a fabric, also where different counts of weft are used, shuttles, equal in number FIG. 26. - Section of Plain Web in Process of Weaving on the Loom.
a, The warp beam. d, The reed in position for pick b, The lease rods by which the ing, and also for beating-up. warp is divided and crossed. e, Woven cloth.
healds.
to the colours, counts or materials, must be provided. By Robert Kay's invention of multiple shuttle boxes, in 1760, much of the time lost through changing shuttles by hand was prevented. His drop boxes consist of trays formed in tiers and fitted into the ordinary shuttle boxes. Each tray is capable of holding a shuttle, and by operating a lever and plug with the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, the trays may be raised and lowered at pleasure to bring that shuttle containing the colour next needed into line with the, picker.
control of a warp thread. The strings passed through a drilled board which held the mails and warp threads facing the proper reed dents. Still higher up, groups of strings were connected to neck cords; each group consisted of all strings required to rise and fall together constantly. If, for example, in the breadth of a fabric there were twelve repeats of a design, twelve strings would be tied to the same neck cord, but taken to their respective places in the comber board. The foregoing parts of a draw loom harness are clearly shown in fig. 27: A are lingoes, and the dots represent mails.
B is the comber board; between a, a B and C are mounting strings and attached to each cord; and C is neck cords, two strings being the bottom board. Each neck cord, after being led through a per, forate grooved bottomd pulley, was was C, and over a through a ring on the top of a vertical cord called the simple, and passed horizontally to, and tied upon a bar rigidly fixed near the ceiling of the weaving room. The simple cords were similarly at - tached to a bar placed near the floor. From one hundred to several thousands of neck and simple cords could be used in one harness. The 13 design to be reproduced in cloth was read into the parallel lines of the simple by looping a piece of string round each cord that governed warp threads to be lifted for a given shed; after which all the loops were bunched together. By pulling at a bunch of loops the simple cords were deflected and they caused all warp threads con trolled by them to be lifted above the level of those undisturbed. Similar bunches of loops were formed for every shed required for one repeat of a design, and they were pulled in succession by the draw-boy, while the weaver attended to the batten and picking.
It is said that about the year 1801 J. M. Jacquard was called upon to correct the defects of a certain loom belonging to the state, in doing which he asserted that he could produce the desired effects by simpler means, and this he undoubtedly accomplished. In or about 1804 he discarded the simple and all but a few inches of the vertical neck cords; he placed Falcon's apparatus immediately over the centre of the loom and severally attached the upper portions of the neck cords to the hooks; all of which Vaucanson had previously done. He then perforated each face of a quadrangular frame - used by Falcon to guide the cards to the gram-boy, and since known as the cylinder - and invented means whereby the cylinder could be made to slide horizontally to and fro, and at each outward journey make one-quarter of a revolution. Cards were so held upon this cylinder by pegs that at each rotatory movement one was brought into action and another moved away. By means of two treadles placed beneath the warp one weaver could operate the entire loom. The cylinder was controlled with one foot, the selecting parts with the other, and both hands were free to attend to picking and beating - up.
In a Jacquard machine the warp threads are raised by rows of upright wires called hooks. See D, fig. 27. These are bent at both extremities and are normally supported upon a bottom board C, which is perforated to permit the neck cords from the harness beneath to be attached to the hooks. Each of a series of horizontal root E - one of which is shown enlarged and detached at the root of the drawing - is provided with a loop and a coiled eye; the former to permit of a to-and-fro movement, the latter to receive a hook. The straight ends of the needles protrude about one-quarter of an inch through a perforated needle board G, but the looped ends rest upon bars placed in tiers. A wire passed through all the loops of the needles which form one vertical line limits the extent of their lateral movement, and small helical springs, a, enclosed in a box F, impinge upon the loops of the needles with sufficient force to press them and their hooks forward. A frame H, called a griffe, is made to rise and fall vertically by a treadle which the weaver actuates with one foot. This frame contains a blade for each line of hooks, and when the blades are in their lowest position the hooks are free and vertical with their heads immediately over the blades, hence, an upward movement given to the griffe would lift all the hooks and thereby all the warp threads. Only certain hooks, however, must be lifted with the griffe, and the selection is made by a quadrangular block of wood, I, called a cylinder, and cards which are placed upon it. Thus, each face of the cylinder has a perforation opposite each needle, so that if the cylinder be pressed close to the needle board the needle points will enter the holes in the cylinder and remain undisturbed. But if a card, which is not perforated in every possible place, is interposed between the cylinder and the needles, the un - punctured parts of the card close up some of the holes in the cylinder, and prevent corresponding needles from entering them. Each needle so arrested is thrust * back by the advancing card; its spiral spring a is contracted and its hook D is tilted as shown in the figure. If at this instant the griffe H ascends, its blades will engage the heads of all vertical hooks and lift them, but those dislocated by being tilted will remain unlifted So soon as the pressing force of a card is removed from the needles the elasticity of the springs restores both needles and hooks to their normal positions. Cards are perforated by special machinery from a painted design, after which they are laced into a chain and passed over conical pegs upon the cylinder; the number required to weave any pattern equals the number of weft threads in that pattern. The cylinder is generally drawn out and turned by each upward movement of the griffe, and restored to the needles by each downward movement, so that each face in succession is presented to the needles, and each rotatory movement brings forward a fresh card. As 'the griffe rises with vertical hooks a shed is formed, and a thread of weft is passed across the warp. The griffe then descends and the operation is repeated but with a new combination of lifted threads for each card. A Jacquard may contain from loo to 1200 hooks and needles, and two or more machines may be mounted upon the same loom.
Since Jacquard's time attempts have been made to dispense with hooks, needles, springs, cards, the cylinder and several other parts; machines have also been specially designed for effecting economies in the manufacture of certain fabrics; but although some of these devices are used in different sections of the industry, the single lift Jacquard remains unchanged, except in its details, which have been modified to give greater certainty of action to the moving parts. The most far-reaching changes are directly due to efforts made to adapt the Jacquard to fast running power looms. Alfred Barlow, John and William Crossley, and others, devised means whereby two hooks could control the same warp thread, and they provided the machine with two grilles, each capable of actuating alternate rows of hooks. One griffe was caused to ascend as the other descended, therefore, if one of the two hooks that operate a warp thread is lifted for the first shed, the other hook can begin to rise for a second shed immediately the first begins to fall. About half the time originally needed for shedding is thus saved, and as a result Jacquards can now be run at 210 to 220 picks per minute.
Slasher Sizing
For sizing cotton yarns Radcliffe's dressing machine has to a large extent been displaced by the slasher, but in some branches of the textile industry it is still retained under various modifications. In a slasher the threads from a number of warping beams are first combined into one sheet, then plunged into a trough filled ' with size which is kept at a boiling temperature by perforated steam pipes; and next squeezed between two pairs of rollers mounted in the trough. The under surfaces of the sizing rollers are in the size, but the upper squeezing rollers are covered with flannel, and rest by gravitation upon the lower ones. On leaving the size trough the sheet of yarn almost encircles two steam-heated cylinders whose diameters are respectively about 6 ft. and 4 ft.; these quickly expel moisture from the yarn, but so much heat is generated that fans have to be employed to throw cool air` amongst the threads. The yarn is next measured, passed above and below rods which separate threads that have been fastened together by size, smeared with piece marks, and coiled upon a loom beam by means of a slipping friction gear. The last-named is employed so that the surface speed of winding shall not be affected by the increasing diameter of the loom beam. By means of mechanism which greatly reduces the velocities of the moving parts, much necessary labour may be performed without actually stopping the machine; this relieves the yarn of strain, and gives better sizing, yet slashed warps are less elastic than dressed, or balled sized ones, and they lack the smoothness of dressed warps.
Hank sizing is chiefly, but not exclusively, employed for bleached and coloured yarns. Machines for doing this work consist of a tank which contains size, flanged revolving rollers and two hooks. One hook is made to rotate a definite number of times in one direction, then an equal number the reverse way; the other has a weight suspended from its outer end and can be made to slide in and out. Size in the tank is kept at the required temperature by steam pipes, and " doles " of hanks are suspended from the rollers with about one-third their length immersed in size. As the hanks rotate all parts of the yarn enter the size, and when sufficiently treated they are removed from the rollers to the hooks where they are twisted to wring out excess, and force in required size. If sufficient size has not been added by one treatment, when untwisted, the wrung-out hanks are passed to a similar machine containing paste of greater density than the first there to be again treated; if necessary this may be followed by a third passage. On the completion of sizing the hanks are removed either to a drying stove or a drying machine. If to the former, they are suspended from fixed, horizontal poles in a specially heated and ventilated chamber. If to the latter, loose poles containing hanks are dropped into recesses in endless chains, and slowly carried through a large, heated and ventilated box, being partially rotated the while. On reaching the front of the box they are removed, brushed and made up into bundles. After which the yarn is wound, warped and transferred to a loom beam.
Drawing-in, or entering, is the operation of passing warp threads through the eyes of a shedding harness, in a sequence determined by the nature of the pattern to be produced, and the order of lifting the several parts. It is effected by passing a hook through each harness eye in succession, and each time a thread is placed in the hook by an attendant, it is drawn into an eye by the withdrawal of the hook.
Twisting or looming consists in twisting, between the finger and thumb, the ends of a new warp separately upon those of an old one, the remains of which are still in the eyes of the shedding harness. The twisted portions adhere sufficiently to permit of all being drawn through the eyes simultaneously.
The Power Loom. - Little is known of the attempts made before the beginning of the 17th century to control all parts of a loom from one centre, but it is certain the practical outcome was inconsiderable. In the year 1661, a loom was set up in Danzig, for which a claim was made that it could weave four or six webs at a time without human aid, and be worked night and day; this was probably a ribbon loom. In order to prevent such a machine from injuring the poor people, the authorities in Poland suppressed it, and privately strangled or drowned the inventor. M. de Gennes, a French naval officer, in 1678 invented a machine whose chief features consisted in controlling the healds by cams, the batten by cams and springs and the shuttle by a carrier. From 1678 to 1745 little of importance appears to have been done for the mechanical weaving of broadcloth. But in the last-named year M. Vaucanson constructed a very ingenious, self - acting loom, on which the forerunner of the Jacquard machine was mounted; he also adopted de Gennes's shuttle carrier. All early attempts to employ mechanical motive power for weaving failed, largely because inventors did not realize that success could only be reached through revolution. Mechanical preparing and spinning machinery had first to be invented, steam was needed for motive power, and the industry required reorganization, which included the abolition of home labour and the introduction of the factory system.
During the last quarter of the 18th century it was generally believed that, on the expiry of Arkwright's patents, so many spinning mills would be erected as to render it impossible to consume at home the yarns thus produced, and to export them would destroy the weaving industry. Many manufacturers also maintained it to be impossible to devise machinery which would bring the production of cloth up to that of yarn. It was as a protest against the last-named assertions that Dr Edmund Cartwright, a clergyman of the church of England, turned his attention to mechanical weaving. More fortunate than his predecessors, he attacked the problem after much initial work had been done, especially that relating to mechanical spinning and the factory system, for without these no power loom could succeed. In 1785 Dr Cartwright patented his first power loom, but it proved to be valueless. In the following year, however, he patented another loom which has served as the model for later in - ventors to work upon. He was conscious that for a mechanically driven loom to become a commercial success, either one person would have to attend several machines, or each machine must have a greater productive capacity than one manually controlled. The thought and ingenuity bestowed by Dr Cartwright upon the realization of his ideal were remarkable. He added parts which no loom, whether worked manually or mechanically, had previously been provided with, namely, a positive let-off motion, warp and weft stop motions, and sizing the warp while the loom was in action. With this machine he commenced, at Doncaster, to manufacture fabrics, and by so doing discovered many of its shortcomings, and these he attempted to remedy: by introducing a crank and eccentrical wheels to actuate the batten differentially; by improving the picking mechanism; by a device for stopping the loom when a shuttle failed to enter a shuttle box; by preventing a shuttle from rebounding when in a box; and by stretching the cloth with temples that acted automatically. In 1792 Dr Cartwright obtained his last patent for weaving machinery; this provided the loom with multiple shuttle boxes for weaving checks and cross stripes. But all his efforts were unavailing; it became apparent that no mechanism, however perfect, could succeed so long as warps continued to be sized while a loom was stationary. His plans for sizing them while a loom was in operation, and also before being placed in a loom, both failed. Still, provided continuity of action could be attained, the position of the power loom was assured, and means for the attainment of this end were supplied in 1803, by William Radcliffe, and his assistant Thomas Johnson, by their inventions of the beam warper, and the dressing sizing machine.
For upwards of thirty years the power loom was worked under numerous difficulties; the mechanism was imperfect, as were also organization, and the preparatory processes. Textile workers were unused to automatic machinery, and many who had been accustomed to labour in their own homes refused employment in mills, owing to dislike of the factory system and the long hours of toil which it entailed, that spinners and manufacturers were compelled to procure assistants from workhouses; this rendered mill life more distasteful than it otherwise would have been to hand spinners and weavers. Their resentment led them to destroy machinery, to burn down mills, to ill-use mill workers and to blame the power loom for the distress occasioned by war and political disturbances. Yet improvements in every branch of the textile industry followed each other in quick successions, and the loom slowly assumed its present shape. By using iron instead of wood in its construction, and centring the batten, or slay, below instead of above the warp line, the power loom became more compact than the hand-loom.
Motion is communicated to all the working parts from a main shaft A (fig. 28), upon which two cranks are bent to cause the slay B to oscillate; by toothed wheels this shaft, drives a second shaft, C, at half its own speed. For plain weaving four tappets are fixed upon the second shaft, two, D, for moving the shuttle to and fro, and two others, E, for moving the healds, L, up and down through the medium of treadles M, M. For other schemes of weaving shedding tappets are more numerous, and are either loosely mounted upon the second shaft, or fixed upon a separate one. In either event FIG. 28. - Vertical Section of a Power Loom.
they are driven by additional gearing, for the revolutions of the tappets to those of the crank shaft must be as one is to the number of picks in the repeat of the pattern to be woven. Also, when two or more shuttles are driven successively from the same side of a loom, if the picking tappets rotate with the second shaft, those tappets must be free to slide axially in order to keep one out of action so long as the other is required to act. The warp beam F is often put under the control of chains instead of ropes, as used in hand looms, and the chains are attached to adjustably weighted levers, G, whereby the effectiveness of the weights may be varied at pleasure. In the manufacture of heavy fabrics, however, it may be necessary to deliver the warp by positive gearing, which is either connected, or otherwise, to the taking-up motion. The cloth is drawn forward regularly as it is manufactured by passing it over the rough surface of a roller, I, and imparting to the roller an intermittent motion each time a pick of weft is beaten home. This motion is derived from the oscillating slay, and is communicated through a train of wheels. The loom is stopped when the weft fails by a fork-and-grid stop motion, which depends for its action on the lightly balanced prongs of a fork, N. These prongs come in contact with the weft, between the selvage of the web and the shuttle box each time the shuttle is shot to the side at which the apparatus is fixed. If the prongs meet no thread they are not depressed, and being unmoved a connexion is formed with a vibrating lever, J; the latter draws the fork forward, and with it a second lever 0, by which the loom is stopped. On the other hand, if the prongs are tilted, the loom continues in action. If more than one shuttle is used it may be necessary to feel for each, instead of alternate threads of weft. In such cases a fork is placed beneath the centre of the cloth and lifted above a moving shuttle; if in falling it meets with weft it is arrested, and the loom continues in motion, but if the weft is absent the prongs fall far enough beneath the shuttle race for a stop to act upon a lever and bring the loom to a stand. To prevent a complete wreck of the warp it is essential to arrest the loom when a shuttle fails to reach its appointed box. For this purpose there are two devices, which are known respectively as fast and loose reed stop motions. The first was invented in 1796 by Robert Miller, and its action depends upon the shuttle, as it enters a box, raising two blades, K, which if left down would strike against stops, and so disengage the driving gear. The second was invented in 1834 by W. H. Hornby and William Kenworthy; i; it is an appliance for liberating the lower part of a reed when a shuttle remains in the warp, thus relieving it, for the time being, of its function of beating up the weft. On the release of a reed from the motion of the slay, a dagger stops the loom. Temples must keep a fabric distended to the breadth of the warp in the reed, and be selfadjusting. This is usually accomplished by small rollers whose surfaces are covered with fine, closely set points. The rollers are placed near the selvages of a web which is prevented from contracting widthwise by being drawn tightly over the points.
Looms are varied in details to suit different kinds of work, but as a rule fabrics figured with small patterns are provided with healds for shedding as at L, while those with large patterns are provided with the Jacquard and its harness. Healds may be operated either by tappets or dobbies, but the range of usefulness in tappets is generally reached with twelve shafts of healds and with patterns having sixteen picks to a repeat; where they are unsuitable for heald shedding a dobby is used. A dobby may resemble, in con - struction and action, a small Jacquard; if so the selection of healds that rise and fall for any pick is made by cards. In other types of dobbies the selection is frequently made by lags, into which pegs are inserted to pattern in the same manner that cards are perforated. By acting upon levers the pegs bring corresponding hooks into contact with oscillating grille bars, and these lift the required heald shafts. Such machines are made single and double acting, and some have rollers in place of pegs to form a pattern. When multiple shuttles are required for power looms one of two types is selected, namely, drop or rotating boxes; the former are applicable to either light or heavy looms, but the latter are chiefly confined to light looms. As previously stated, Robert Kay invented drop boxes in 1760, but they were not successfully applied to the power loom until 1845, when Squire Diggle patented a simple device for operating them automatically. Since his time many other methods have been introduced, the most successful of these being operated indirectly from the shedding motion. Revolving boxes were patented in 1843 by Luke Smith. They consist in mounting a series of shuttles in chambers formed in the periphery of a cylinder, and in moving the cylinder far enough, in each direction, to bring the required shuttle in line with the picker.
Terry Looms
Looms for weaving piled textures, of the Turkish towel type, have the reed placed under the control of parts that prevent it from advancing its full distance for two picks out of every as those of the present day, with dragons, phoenixes, mystical bird forms, flowers and fruits.' At that time even Egypt, Assyria or Babylonia, Greece and Rome, seem to have been only learning of the fact that there was such a material as silk.' Their shuttle-weaving had been and was then concerned with spun wool and flax and possibly some cotton, whilst the ornamentation of their textiles, although sparkling on occasion with golden threads, was done apparently not by shuttle-weaving but by either embroidery or a sort of compromise between darning and weaving from which tapestry weaving descended (see Tapestry). The range of their colours was limited, reds, purples and yellows being the chief; and their shuttle-weaving was principally concerned with plain stuffs, and in a much smaller degree with striped, spotted and chequered fabrics. Remains of these, whether made by Egyptians thousands of years B.C., by Scandinavians of the early Bronze Age, by lake dwellers, by Aztecs or Peruvians long before the Spanish Conquest, display little if any technical difference when compared with those woven by nomads in Asia, hill tribes in India and natives in Central Africa and islands of the Pacific. Such ornamental effect as is seen in them depends upon the repetition of stripes or very simple crossing forms, still this principle of repetition is a prominent factor in more intricate designs which are shuttlewoven in broad looms and lengths of stuff.
The world's apparent indebtedness to the Chinese for knowledge of figured shuttle-weaving leads to some consideration of their early overland commerce westwards. About 200 B.C. during the Han Dynasty Chinese trade had extended beyond inner Asia to the confines of the Graeco-Parthian empire, then at its zenith, and the protection of the route by which the Seres (Chinese) sent their merchandise was fully recognized as a matter of importance. Seventy years later the emperor of China sent a certain Chang Kien on a mission to the Indo-Scythians; and according to his records the people as far west as Bactria (adjacent to the Graeco-Parthian territory) were knowing traders, and amongst other things under - stood the preparation of silk. Chinese weavings had for some time been coming into Persia, and doubtless instigated the more skilled weavers there to adapt their shuttle looms in course of time to the. weaving of stuffs with greater variety of effects than had been hitherto obtained by them; and into Persian designs were intro - duced details taken not only from Chinese textiles, but also from sculptured, embroidered and other ornament of Graeco-Parthian and earlier Babylonian styles. In A.D. 97 Chinese enterprise in still furthering their trade relations with the Far West is at least sug - gested by the fact that envoys from the emperor of China to Rome actually reached the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, but turned back frightened by the Parthian accounts of the terrors of the sea voyage.
Early in the 3rd century A.D. Heliogabalus is reputed to have been amongst the first of the Roman emperors to wear garments entirely of silk (holosericum), which, if figured (as is not unlikely), were probably of Syrian or Persian manufacture. Sidonius Apollinaris (5th century) writes of Persian patterned stuffs, - " Bring forth brilliant cushions and stuffs on which, produced by a miracle of art, we behold the fierce Parthian with his head turned back on a prancing steed; now escaping, now returning to hurl his spear, by turns fleeing from and putting to flight wild animals whom he pursues " - a description quite appropriate to such silk weaving as that in fig. 33. A number of kindred pieces have been recovered of late years from Egyptian burial-places of the Roman period. The Persians of the Sassanian dynasty (3rd to 7th century) traded in silks with Romans and Byzantines; King Chosroes (about 570) encouraged the trade, and ornamental weaving seems to have been an industry of some standing at Bagdad and other towns north, east and south, e.g. Hamadan, Kazvin Kashan, Yezd Persepolis, &c. To the north - west of Persia and north of Syria lay the Byzantine region of Anatolia (now Asia Minor), some towns in which became noted for their fine weavings: the mass of the population there was well off in the 6th century, the country highly cultivated and prosperous, and justice fairly administered,' thus affording favourable conditions for an industry like ornamental weaving, which had been and was prospering in neighbouring Syrian districts.
I See Chinese Art, by Stephen W. Bushell, C.M.G., B.Sc., M.D. (London, 1906), vol. ii. p. 95.
2 Aristotle describes the silk-worm and its cocoon. Virgil-Martial and late Roman writers (including Pliny) throw scarcely more light upon the use of silken stuffs than that they were of rarity and greatly prized by opulent Romans. Propertius (19 B.C.) writes of silken garments of varied tissue," and of Cynthia that " perchance she glistens in Arabian Silk." W. M. Ramsay, Studies in the History and Art of the Roman Empire (University of Aberdeen, 1906).1906).
XXVIII. 15 Between the 1st and 6th centuries A.D., then, knowledge of silk and its value in fine weaving was spreading itself, not only in the further western regions of Southern Asia, but also in Egypt, where Greek and Roman taste influenced the works of Copts or those FIG. 33. - Syrian or Persian Silk Weaving of the 5th Century. natives who maintained old Egyptian traditions in technical handi - crafts. Of peculiar interest in this connexion are fragments of flax (yellow and brown) woven with a comparatively elaborate texture, as well as in patterns (see fig. 34) which suggest an ordinary type of Roman pavement designs (3rd century and earlier), the basis of which is roundels linked together. Stuffs in which the style of FIG. 34. - Syrian and Coptic Flax Weaving of the 5th or 6th Century.
patterns, though comparatively simple, is rather more Oriental, are of flax and wool, and the official robes of Roman consuls seem to have been of this character, and amongst other goods may have been made with small technical difference at Rome 4 or at Fostat (Cairo) 4 In 369 by order of the emperors Valens and Valentinian the making of textiles in which gold and silken threads were introduced was limited to women's workrooms or gynecia (see Codex of Theo - dosius, lib. x. tit. 21, lex I). In the 5th century the weaving of silken tunics and mantles was prohibited (Codex Theodosius, lib. x. tit. 21, lex 3).
or Alexandria or other towns in Lower Egypt as well as in Syria. Byzantine styles, though one may do so in respect of certain Moslem Contemporaneously the development of similar weaving appears to (Moorish and Saracenic) weavings, which have distinctive features,, FIG. 37. - Part of Silk Wrapping of the Emperor Charlemagne, possibly of Bagdad manufacture, 9th Century, with Fanciful Elephant and Sacred Tree device in a Roundel.
of design, and were produced in the south of Spain and in Sicily about a period from the 10th century to the 13th.
Fig. 35, from a piece of sarcenet with repeated parallel series of Samsons and lions (or gladiators?), is probably 5th-century Syrian or FIG. 35. - Syrian or Anatolian Silk Weaving of the 5th Century. with Samson and the Lion (repeated).
have been proceeding in Byzantine provinces, though perhaps not in so marked a way as when Justinian systematized sericulture' and still further stimulated shuttle-weaving in the town of Byzantium (Constantinople) itself in A.D. 552.
For examples of the elaborate figure weav - ings at that time we have to rely upon such as have been rescued in the service of archaeology from the oblivion of tombs and burial - places. The dates of some speci - mens can be fixed with almost certainty by means of nearly con - temporary records, e.g. those of Sidonius Apollinaris and later Anastasius the Libra - rian; comparison and classification lead to almost conclusive in - ferences as to the dates of other examples. Broadly speaking, the earlier of these remains (i.e. from about the 4th to the 7th century) seem to be either of FIG. Persian (Sassanian) 36. - Byzantine Red Silk and Gold manufacture and de Thread Weaving of the i ith Century. Pairs sign, or of Syrian and of lions and pairs of small birds. possibly Alexandrian make. Christian sub jects were occasionally introduced into the designs. Between the 7th and the 13th centuries Byzantine manufactures come to the fore, and it is difficult if not impossible now to draw a clear line between those of Roman-Byzantine, Perso-Byzantine and Moslem 1 This virtually was the starting of sericulture in Europe.
FIG. 38. - Fragment of Byzantine Silk, 12th Century, with Ogival Framing about pairs of Birds, &c.
Anatolian; of the same date are pieces with scenes of the Annuncia - tion repeated in roundels, and with artistic birds and lions, in the treasury of the Sancta Sanctorum of the Chapel of St Lawrence in framing, composed of animals, birds and the like, formally treated and repeated vertically and horizontally, as in fig. 36, which is from a silk and gold thread shuttle-weaving classified as Byzantine of the 11th century manufacture. But this style of composition also occurs in a Sassanian or Syrian silk of the 5th century at Le Mans,3 and again in the Cope of St Maxim at Chinon, which is powdered with panthers. Conventional eagles (reminiscent perhaps of the Roman Eagle), with scale patterns on their breasts and wings, are woven in the wrappings reputed to have been given by the Empress Placidia for the corpse of St Germain (448) preserved at the church of St Eusebius at Auxerre. Some likeness in style may be detected between the old Lateran Palace, Rome. Scriptural subjects' seem to be typical of those which were condemned by Anatolian and Syrian fathers of the Christian church as early as in the late 4th century, and Asterius, bishop of Amasus, in denouncing the luxury of the rich in flaunting themselves in such inappropriately decorated silks, has left a most useful description of the subjects decorating them. A scheme long maintained in Syrian and Byzantine patterns was that of repeated roundels, within which other than scriptural subjects were wrought, e.g. hunters on horseback (as in fig. 33), fantastic animals and birds, singly or in pairs, confronting one another or back to back, frequently with a sacred tree device' between them. A piece of Sassanian silk, probably of the 6th century, shows a gryphon practically identical with that sculptured on the patterned saddle - cloth of a king (Chosroes II.?) in the archway to the garden of the king's palace at Kermchah.
Less common perhaps are patterns, without roundel or other 1 The silken wrappings of St Wilibald (700-786), a founder of the church at Eichstatt, where they are still preserved, are woven with repeated roundels, each enclosing a Daniel between two lions, and are perhaps Byzantine of the 8th century.
See Sir George Birdwood's chapter on Knop and Flower pattern in his Industrial Arts of India, in which this device of ancient Assyrian art is discussed as well as its relation and that of the horn, a fanlike symbol, to cognate ornament in Greek, Roman and even Renaissance art.
these latter and a fragment of one of the wrappings of St Cuthbert (d. 688) at Durham, though in this case the elaborate ornamentation is set within a roundel. Prior to the discovery of woven silks in the Akhmin cemeteries, the periods to which tradition and association had ascribed the Auxerre and Durham specimens were con - sidered too early; but there now seems to be far less reason to question that ascription. Fig. 37 is from part of a silken wrapping of Charlemagne (early 9th century) now at Aix-la - Chapelle. It bears a Greek inscrip - tion of the names of Peter, governor of Negropont, and Michael, chamberlain of the Imperial Chambers, and this is taken by some authorities as evidence that the weaving was made at Byzan - ,00,, tium. On the other hand, Eginhard, Charlemagne's secretary, has written of gifts, including rich textiles pre - sented in his day by Haroun al Raschid to the emperor, 4 and a fabric like that in question might have been made quite possibly even at Baghdad in the 9th century or earlier. In the ith century amongst the handicrafts - men in the city of Byzantium were many skilled native and foreign weavers; and their designs generally appear to reflect the style of earlier Persianesque and Syrian taste.
r About the 12th century the well - used pattern scheme of roundels became more or less superseded by one of continuous ovals, of ogival framings (see fig. 38), contemporary with which are Saracenic patterns based on hexagonal and star-shape frames. Within these new varieties of pattern framing's recur the Byzan - tine and Persianesque pairs of birds, animals, &c. But distinct from these is the more restricted style which has been mentioned. It had arisen under the influence for the most part of the Fatimy Khalifs, not only iii Syria and Alexandria but also in Sicily and southern Spain. Patterns of this Moslem or Saracenic type are usually composed of a succession of parallel bands - narrow and wide - containing Kufic inscriptions, groups of small intricate geometrical devices, and occasionally conventional animals and birds. A 12th-century example of this class of pattern has been given elsewhere (see Brocade, fig. I).
Almeria, Malaga, Grenada and Seville were notable Moorish weav - ing places in Spain for such patterned silks and stuffs as these; and even after the Christian conquest of Grenada at the end of the 15th century this city retained its celebrity for silks woven " a la Moresque." In Sicily no similar survival of Saracenic influence seems to have been as strongly maintained, notwithstanding the numerous Saracen weavers at work in the island for years before the Royal factory for silk weaving came to be organized at Palermo under Norman supremacy. According to the usual story, Roger of Sicily, or Roger Guiscard, who in 1147 made a successful raid on the shores of Attica, and took Athens, Thebes and Corinth, carried off as prisoners a number of Greek (Byzantine) weavers and settled them at Palermo in the factory known as the Hotel des Tiraz. A mixture of Byzantine See Abêcêclaire d'arch g ologie (June 1854).
4 Recherches, &c., by Francisque Michel, i. 40.
1?
FIG. 39. - Specimens of various Small Loom Weavings between the 7th and 15th centuries.
A. Part of a narrow band or orphrey woven in gold and silk threads with a Latin inscription along the edges. German work of the 13th century.
B. Part of a broad band or orphrey woven in gold and silk threads with figures of the Crucifixion and the Annunciation (?). It bears an inscription, Odilia me fecit. It is probably German work of the 13th century.
C and D. Specimens of Cologne orphreys woven in silk and gold threads; C bears a Latin inscrip - tion, and the faces of the Virgin and Child are embroidered.
E. Part of a narrow band woven in gold and silk threads with chevron spaces filled with delicate scroll ornament, among which are occasional animal and bird devices. Possibly English or French work of the 13th century.
F. Part of a narrow band or clavus from a Coptic tunic of the 9th or 10th century.
and Saracenic styles of textile patterns ensued; and this peculiarity is demonstrated in many of the rich fabrics attributed to south and north Italian weavers from the 12th century onwards. From Palermo portant part, and possibly was applicable to early brocades. Carmoca or Carmuk (Arab Kamkla, from the Chinese Kimka - also brocade) was another handsome stuff corresponding in a way with Indian.
century, Part of B Orphrey with the Virgin and Child (Siena weaving, 1425-1450)FIG. 40.
Apparel of a Dalmatic woven in Venice late in the 15th with the Virgin in glory.
Part of Orphrey, with the Annunciation (Florentine weav - ing, late 15th century). the art of ornamental weaving in this style soon extended into the mainland, and from Apulia a bishop of St Evroul in Normandy is mentioned as having obtained a number of silken goods in the 12th century. From the 13th century onwards Lucca, Florence, Milan, Genoa and Venice became important centres, using not only im - ported silk, but also such as was being then cultivated in Italy, for sericulture had become an Italian industry early in the 13th century. Wandering Saracenic and Byzantine weavers even before that time had strayed or been taken to work at places in Germany, France and Britain, but the output of their productions in northern countries was almost infinitesimal as compared with that of the !far greater Italian output, nevertheless they were sowing the seeds of a harvest to be reaped centuries later by these more northerly European countries.
To the influence of these early sporadic weavings we seem to trace a distinctive class of work, which was done by inmates of monasteries and convents as well as by devout ladies, in little looms, for use as stoles, maniples, orphreys and similar narrow bands. A rhyming chronicler of the 13th century paraphrases the older record by Egin - hard of the skill of Charlemagne's daughters in silk weaving, " ouvrer en soie en taulieles " or small looms.' The illustrations in fig. 39 give varieties of this class of work between the 7th and 15th centuries, for which Cologne especially seems to have become famous in the 15th century. Venice also made work of corresponding character: and the designs were evidently furnished by or directly adapted from the compositions of such artists as those who produced the notable German and Venetian woodcuts of the 15th century (fig. 40).
Whilst the bulk of the Italian patterned stuffs issuing in great lengths from large looms were of silk, a good many also were woven in wools, or wools intermixed with silks. The earlier of the silk textiles - Persian, Syrian and Byzantine - were of the nature of sarcenet and taffetas; later in development are satins, damask satins, brocades, and still later (i.e. about the end of the 14th century) come Italian velvets and cloths of gold, which quite transcended the ancient and less substantial attalic cloths of the early Roman period. Medieval inventories and records contain many names of textiles, but the exact technical meaning of several of them is un - certain. Cendal, Sandal, Syndonus seem to relate to such materials as sarcenet or taffeta: zetanz, from low Latin, is held by some writers to be of the same class as samit or examite, so called because the weft threads were only caught at every sixth thread of the warp; damask, now regarded as a special class of textile, the ornamentation of which depends upon contrasting sheens in the surface of the stuff, whether of silk or linen, got its name from Damascus, much in the same way as Baudekin comes from Baldak, or Baghdad. Baudekin, and an apparently somewhat earlier word ciclatoun, seem to have been general terms for rich-looking textiles, in which gold thread played an im See Recherches, &c., by Francisque Michel, 93-94Kincobs. Velvet (Italian veil/do - shaggy) is veluiau in French docu - ments of the 14th century, and is a finely piled material of silk, and on, that account may have been called Samit, as the German word FIG. 41. - Piece of North Italian Silk Weaving of the 14th century,. with pattern planned on an ogival basis with fantastic birds, some of which are of a Chinese type, and Persianesque cone forms containing sham Arabic inscriptions.
Sammet implies velvet, as does the Russian Axamitt. Diaper (Italian diaspro, meaning patterned) was used not only to denote a regular and geometric patterning but in some cases a special sort' of linen or silk. Muslin from Mosul, and gauze from Gaza, are two.
well-known and kindred textiles. Frequently one meets with odd phrases such as " silk of Brydges " (Bruges), " silk dornex " (from Dorneck), " sheets of raynes " (Rheims), and " fuschan in Appules " (Naples fustian).
Many of the foregoing stuffs are identifiable by textures peculiar to them; this is, however, not so as regards their ornamental patterns, for these are frequently interchanged, the same class of patterns appearing in satin damasks, velvets and brocades. This is particu - larly the case with 13thand 14th-century Italian stuffs. In the patterns of these, as previously suggested, are strong traces of Sara - cenic and Byzantine motives, intermingled with badges, heraldic devices, human figures, eagles, falcons, hounds, lions, harts, boards, leopards, rays of light, Persianesque pine cone and cloud forms, and even Chinese mystical birds, symmetrically distributed, without framings, as a rule, though elaborations of the ogival frame or scheme are also met with, but less frequently (see fig. 41). Such fabrics, made in the main by Lucchese weavers, appear to have been traded in with other European countries. But besides trade records, there are others relating to Lucchese weavers who left their own town under stress of circumstances, civil wars and the like, to settle and work elsewhere, as in France and Flanders, during the 15th century. Nevertheless the northern parts of Italy were the fertile places for producing fine types of patterned textiles used by Italian and other FIG. 42. - Damask and Brocade Silk Fabric. Italian manu - facture of the 15th century.
European courts and nobles: and if the art seriously dwindled in the town of Lucca, it flourished conspicuously, from the end of the 14th century and up to the beginning of the 16th century, in Venice, Bologna, Genoa, Florence and Milan. There was nothing similar to compete with it in France, Germany or England. The identifica - tion of its splendid varieties is made possible upon referring to contemporary paintings by Orcagna, Crivelli, Spinello Aretino and later Italian masters, as well as to those of the Flemish School, Gheraet David, Mabuse, &c.
Of a specially distinct class, very dignified in effect, are patterns of the 15th century based upon the repetition of conventional pentagonally constructed leaf panels, clearly defined in outline, each encircling a pomegranate or cone form around which radiate small leaves or blossoms; though they were more richly developed in superb velvets and cloths of gold, for which Florence, Venice and Genoa were famed, this type of design is also woven in less costly materials. A composite unusual and beautiful design of another kind is given in fig. 42. Repeated large leaf shapes can just be detected in it, but more remarkable are the bunches of radiating stalks of wheat-ears and cornflowers within them; whilst about them, arranged in hexagonal trellising, are leafy bars, small birds, crowns, pomegranates and other daintily depicted plant forms. This piece of damask combined with brocade weaving is of late 15th century manufacture: and after the opening of the next century the freedom towards realistic treatment, which we find here, enters into many of the Italian patterns. In some of them, however, an Ottoman or Anatolian feeling is apparent, as in fig. 43 from a figured silk which is considered to have been made in Venice. The chained dogs and birds in this design recall the rather more formal ones in Lucchese patterns of a hundred and fifty years earlier, whereas the lengthy serrated leaves and elongated flower devices charged with carnations and hyacinths depicted on a smaller scale are unmis-' takably Ottoman. Persian fabrics of rather thin silk material or taffetas like that of the original of this were also being woven with varieties of floral designs, as well as others portraying Persian stories. At this period there was considerable activity in weaving sumptuous stuffs at Broussa and Constantinople (fig. 44). Arabic and Turkish weavers often came over to be employed in Venice, blending Italian and Oriental characteristics into their designs.
In Spain during the early 16th century we have traces of HispanoMoresque influence in the overlapping and interlocking nondescript forms; but Spanish weavings are hardly comparable in quality with the Italian of the same time. In the middle of this century cloths of gold or of silver, with the pattern details raised in velvet and brocatelles of similar formal design were made in greater quantities in Italy for costumes of men and women. The frequent basis of most of the designs is the ogival framework already re - ferred to, but it is much elaborated with detail and combined with the cone device of a previous century. The ornamenta - tion of this style is purely conventional throughout, the various devices hav - ing little of the appear - ance of actual objects like fruit, leaves, &c.
The time, however, was close at hand when a more general reaction was to set in, in the direction of designs re - presenting forms very nearly as they actually look, an example of which occurs in fig. 45, with its leaf forms and crowns. This from a class of silk damask or lampas, which is kindred to brocatelle; a feature in lampas is that its ground is different in colour from that of the ornament on it. and as in the case of portions of brocatelles its texture is of taffeta or sarcenet quality.' At the end of the 16th century a pe - culiar type of pattern consists of repetitions in different positions of the same detail treated real - istically or purely orna - mentally, little if any - thing of quite the same character having been previously designed. Of such fig. 46, with its repeated realistic leafy logs variously placed, is an example. The prin - ciple in the composition of these patterns, but with a greater variety of conventional detail, is followed in French 17th century examples. However, as soon as figured weaving became well organized in France at this time, a school of designers arose in that country who adopted a realism that predominated in French patterns during the succeeding 150 years, that is, from Louis XIV. to the end of the 18th century. Throughout this period French figured stuffs seem to surpass those of other countries. " If, " writes Monsieur Pariset, " any account is to be taken of the weavers during the 14th and 15th centuries who made cloths and velvets of silk at Paris, Rouen, Lyons,Nimes and Avignon, it must be remembered that they were almost solely Italian emigrants from,Lucca and Florence, who had fled their towns during troublous times. " By a charter granted by Francis I. to Lyons, foreign and native workmen were encouraged to promote the city's interests in trade and manufacture; still, it is not until the 17th century that Lyons really asserts herself in producing fabrics possessing French taste and ornamentation. The more important designs were supplied by trained artists of whom Reval, a pupil of Le Brun, the first principal of the Academie des Beaux Arts founded by Colbert in Paris (1648), Pillement and Philippe de la Salle in the 18th century, may be 1 See Ornament in European Silks (London, 1899), p. 15.
FIG. 43. - Piece of Venetian Silk Weav - ing showing Ottoman influence in the design (16th century).
named. Their influence in the domain of fanciful, and at times extravagant realistic, floral patterns was widespread. Soon after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, in consequence of which thousands of Protestant weavers left France, factories for weaving silks and mixed materials with patterns imitating the successive French phases became organized at Spitalfields, in Cheshire, Yorkshire, Norfolk and elsewhere in England, as well as in Germany at Crefeld, Elberfeld, Barmen and Weissen.
Entirely distinct from what has already been discussed is a branch of artistic weaving con - cerned with the decora - tion of linens, that flourished notably in Italy towards the end of the 15th century and in the r6th century. From early times long and narrow Italian table - cloths were enriched with ornament of linen or cotton threads of a single colour, and Signora Isabella Erera has written at some FIG. 44. - Ottoman (Anatolian) Silk altd 1 lengthabout them,' Gold Thread Weaving of the 16th century, illustrating the result of with ogival framed ornament. The original her investigations with is stated to have come from a sultana's several examples culled tomb at Broussa or Constantinople. from paintings by Pietro Lorenzetto of Siena (1340), by Ghirlandaja (1447-1490), &c. In Leonardo da Vinci's painting of the Last Supper, now in the Louvre, the border of the tablecloth is very like many examples of this sort of textile in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Their char - acteristic ornament, in rather heavy blue thread, consists of quaint animals and birds in pairs, which are evident derivations of those so often seen in Italo-Byzantine and Lucchese silks and brocades. Be FIG. 45. - Italian Silk Damask or Lampas, with purple ground pattern of late 16th century.
sides animals and birds, reversed names and words were sometimes introduced, e.g. " Amor " for " Roma," " Asoizarg " for " Graziosa " and " Eroma " for " Amore," &c. The simpler of these table-cloth patterns probably date from before the 14th century, whilst the fuller ones were certainly made in considerable quantities in the 15th century. An inventory dated 1842 has an entry of two napkins or cloths woven in cotton with bands of dragons and lions a la Perugina, which is suggestive that this type of weaving was associated particu 1 See the Italian monthly art review, Emporium, vol. xxiii. (1906).
larly with Perugia. In the r6th century, work of similar style was produced, but it was lighter and flatter in texture and often done 2 The earl of Northumberland (1512) is said to have had but eight linen cloths for his personal use, while his large retinue of servants had but one, which was washed once a month. (See notes by Rev. C. H. Evelyn White on damask linen. Proceedings of Society of Antiquaries, second series, vol. xx. p. 132.) See Rev. C. H. Evelyn White's paper on damask linen, Proceedings of Society of Antiquaries, second series, vol. xx. pp. 130-140.
'. '1111411 i i '1:;.: ' 1 1 q ilk ph i ell, :, 1 AD% 4 ili d to. 1 i l l (II I !: ::: III 1 1 1 t*' iii I I :, 1 1 11 1 11 11 11110 114 II ' 't 11 110 1;' 0 111 "1 'ill 1 illiArl ' 1 0 111', ' 11+,1.111 i i m qwunik ,1; O l f lb ' lif ili bli,. " 1.111, 01 CIA) 1, 1116 1 II, Ill R I ,, i z r, l 1 o '.,, 7,100.H1 4 4; 'Mil l, 1 AI pa 11061,-, i I rik,'..,.„.1 II AO t 0111 (41:' itit 1111 P 1 i l 111 :,. 4 0,.. i ,FIG. 46. - Italian Silk Damask or Lampas of late 16th century, with pattern of repeated leafy logs.
with red or yellow silk, and embroidery was sometimes added to the weaving.
The most important and probably the best known class of later ornamental linen weaving is that of damask household napery, which, as a reflection of satin damask, was developed in the flax-growing regions of Saxony, Flanders and North France, during the late 15th or early 16th century; it was then rare and acquired for use by wealthy persons only. 2 The style of design in the better of the old linen damasks has some kinship with that of bold 15thand 16th - century woodcuts of the Flemish or German schools. To some extent these damask figure subjects recall those of the coloured Cologne and Venetian orphreys for copes and apparels for dal - matics. The early history of linen damask is obscure, but a great many of its results are preserved in England. A napkin with the royal shield of Henry VII., the supporters within the garter surmounted by the crown, is in the Victoria and Albert Museum where it is called Flemish. On the other hand it is possibly the work of Flemings in England, since from the time of Edward I. and for a hundred years " a constant stream of emigrants passed from Flanders to England." 3 The Victoria and Albert Museum contains an early 16th-century tablecloth in damask linen of German or Flemish manufacture with various subjects, chiefly religious and moral: Gideon being shown as a kneeling knight, the fleece of wool on the ground being near him, while from above the dew falls on it; below Gideon is the Virgin Mary and the unicorn, and lower down an angel with seven dogs' heads typifying different virtues as shown in the lettering - fides, sees, charitas, &c. In another which was probably made in England (at Norwich?) by Flemings during the second half of the r6th century, we find, St George and the Dragon, the royal arms of Queen Anne Boleyn, the badges of Queen Anne Boleyn and Queen Elizabeth, the crowned Tudor Rose, and repeated portraits of Queen Elizabeth, with the legend below, " God save the Queene." This specimen is also in the Victoria and Albert Museum. A hundred years later in date is a tablecloth on which is a view of old St Paul's (burnt in 1666), while above and below occurs the wreathed shield of the d City of London. A different class of linen, with the design done in an blue, was evidently, from the inscriptions on it, the work of a German or Fleming, and probably woven in Germany about 1730. Here we find the wreathed arms of the City of London, a view of " London," and " George der II. Konig in Engelland " mounted on horseback. In this specimen the design is repeated, and not reversed, as is the case with the earlier pieces. A large collection of this German damask weaving with coloured thread was formed under the auspices of the Royal Kunstgewerbe Museum at Dresden.' The north-eastern Irish industry of damask weaving owes much to French Protestant refugees, who settled there towards the close of the 17th century, though linen manufacture had been established in the district by a colony of Scots in 1634. Dunfermline in Scotland is said to produce as much damask as the rest of Europe, but there are important manufactories of it at Courtrai and Liege in Belgium, in Silesia, Austria and elsewhere.
Literature.-The following are titles of a few works on weaving, from which much important information on the subject may be derived :-J. Bezon, Dictionnaire des tissus (8 vols., Paris, 18 591863), more or less technical only, Dictionnaire des sciences (Paris, 1751-1780), technical; Michel Francisque, Recherches sur le commerce, la fabrication et l'usage des etoffes de soie, d'or et d'argent (2 vols., Paris, 1852-1854), a well-known work full of erudition in respect of the archaeology of woven fabrics, their technical characteristics, &c.; James Yates, Textrinum antiquorum: an Account of the Art of Weaving among the Ancients (London, 1843), a very valuable and learned work of reference; Very Rev. Daniel Rock, D.D., Textile Fabrics (London, 1870), with some few good illustrations; Pariset, Histoire de la soie (Paris, 1862); Raymond Cax, L' Art de decorer les tissus, &c. (Paris, Iwo); Alan Cole, Ornament in European Silks (London, 1899), well illustrated; J. Lessing, Berlin konigliche Museen, Die Gewebe-Sammlung des k. Kunstgewerbe-Museums (Berlin, 1900), a very fine series of phototype facsimiles of all kinds of textiles; A. Riegl, Die agyptischen Textil-Funde (Wien, 1889); R. Forrer, ROmische und byzantinische Seiden-Textilien (Strassburg, 1891); A. Dupont Auberville, L' Ornament des tissus (Paris, 1877), admirable illustrations; F. Fischbach, Die wichtigsten Webe-Ornamente (3 vols., Wiesbaden, 1901), admirable illustrations; Raymond Cax, Le Musee historique des tissus. .. de Lyon (Lyon, 1902); Nuremberg: Germanisches Museum, Katalog der Gewebesammlung des germanischen National-Museums (Nuremberg, 1896).
(A. S. C.)
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Bibliography Information
Chisholm, Hugh, General Editor. Entry for 'Weaving'. 1911 Encyclopedia Britanica. https://www.studylight.org/encyclopedias/eng/bri/w/weaving.html. 1910.
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