Bible Commentaries
Numbers

Introduction

TITLE

The title the Jews used in their Hebrew Old Testament for this book comes from the fifth word in the book in the Hebrew text, bemidbar: "in the wilderness." This is, of course, appropriate since the Israelites spent most of the time covered in the narrative of Numbers in the wilderness.

The English title "Numbers" is a translation of the Greek title Arithmoi. The Septuagint translators chose this title because of the two censuses of the Israelites that Moses recorded at the beginning (chs. 1-4) and toward the end (ch. 26) of the book. These numberings of the people took place at the beginning and end of the wilderness wanderings and frame the contents of Numbers.

DATE AND WRITER

Moses wrote Numbers (cf. Num_1:1; Num_33:2; Mat_8:4; Mat_19:7; Luk_24:44; Joh_1:45; et al.). He evidently did so late in his life on the plains of Moab. [Note: See the commentaries for fuller discussions of these subjects, e.g., Gordon J. Wenham, Numbers, pp. 21-25.] Moses evidently died close to 1406 B.C. since the Exodus happened about 1446 B.C. (1Ki_6:1), the Israelites were in the wilderness for 40 years (Num_32:13), and he died shortly before they entered the Promised Land (Deu_34:5).

There are also a few passages that appear to have been added after Moses’ time: Num_12:3; Num_21:14-15; and Num_32:34-42. However, it is impossible to say how much later.

SCOPE AND PURPOSE

When the book opens the Israelites were in the second month of the second year after they departed from Egypt (Num_1:1). In chapters 7-10 we read things that happened in the nation before that. These things happened when Moses finished setting up the tabernacle, which occurred on the first day of the first month of the second year (Num_7:1; cf. Exo_40:17). When Numbers closes the Israelites were in the tenth month of the fortieth year (cf. Deu_1:3). Thus the time Numbers covers is about 39 years.

Numbers records that the Israelites traveled from Mt. Sinai to the plains of Moab, which lay to the east of Jericho and the Jordan River. However their journey was not at all direct. They proceeded from Sinai to Kadesh Barnea on Canaan’s southern border but failed to go into the Promised Land from there because of unbelief. Their failure to trust God and obey Him resulted in a period of 38 years of wandering in the wilderness. God finally brought them back to Kadesh and led them from there to the plains of Moab that lay on Canaan’s eastern border.

Even though the wilderness wanderings consumed the majority of the years that Numbers records, Moses passed over the events of this period of Israel’s history fairly quickly. No one knows for sure how much time the Israelites spent in transit during the 38 years between their first and last visits to Kadesh Barnea. God’s emphasis in this book is on His preparation of the Israelites to enter the land from Kadesh (chs. 1-14), and His preparation to enter from the plains of Moab (chs. 20-36). This indicates that the purpose of the book was primarily to show how God dealt with the Israelites as they anticipated entrance into the Promised Land. It was not to record all the events, or even most events, that took place in Israel’s history. This selection of content to teach spiritual lessons is in harmony with the other books of the Pentateuch. Their concern too was more theological than historical.

"The material in Numbers cannot be understood apart from what precedes it in Exodus and Leviticus. The middle books of the Pentateuch hang closely together, with Genesis forming a prologue, and Deuteronomy the epilogue to the collection." [Note: Ibid., pp. 15-16.]

The content stresses events leading to the destruction of the older generation of Israelites in the wilderness and the preparation of the new generation for entrance into the land. The census at the beginning of the book (chs. 1-4) and the one at the end (ch. 26) provide, ". . . the overarching literary and theological structure of the book of Numbers." [Note: Dennis T. Olson, The Death of the Old and the Birth of the New: The Framework of the Book of Numbers and the Pentateuch, p. 81.]

"We may also venture the purpose of the book in this manner: To compel obedience to Yahweh by members of the new community by reminding them of the wrath of God on their parents because of their breach of covenant; to encourage them to trust in the ongoing promises of their Lord as they follow him into their heritage in Canaan; and to provoke them to worship of God and to the enjoyment of their salvation." [Note: Ronald B. Allen, "Numbers," in Genesis-Numbers, vol. 2 of The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, p. 662.]

"The Book of Numbers seems to be an instruction manual to post-Sinai Israel. The ’manual’ deals with three areas: (a) how the nation was to order itself in its journeyings, (b) how the priests and Levites were to function in the condition of mobility which lay ahead, and (c) how they were to prepare themselves for the conquest of Canaan and their settled lives there. The narrative sections, of which there are many, demonstrate the successes and failures of the Lord’s people as they conformed and did not conform to the requirements in the legislative, cultic, and prescriptive parts of the book." [Note: Eugene H. Merrill, "Numbers," in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: Old Testament, p. 215.]

GENRE

The basic genre of Numbers is narrative, though there are legal and genealogical sections as well. that supplement the narrative. One scholar identified 14 different genres in the book. [Note: Ibid., p. xiii.] However, most of it is narrative and legal material, and the overarching genre is instructional history designed to teach theology. [Note: Tremper Longman III and Raymond B. Dillard, An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 95.]

STYLE

"The individual pericopes of Numbers manifest design. Their main structural device is chiasm and introversion. Also evidenced are such artifices as parallel panels, subscripts and repetitive resumptions, prolepses, and septenary enumerations. The pericopes are linked to each other by associative terms and themes and to similar narratives in Exodus by the same itinerary formula." [Note: Jacob Milgrom, Numbers, p. xxxi.]

THEME

I believe the theme of the book is obedience.

"The major theological theme of Numbers is reciprocal in nature: God has brought a people to Himself by covenant grace, but He expects of them a wholehearted devotion. Having accepted the terms of the Sinai Covenant, Israel had placed herself under obligation to obey them, a process that was to begin at once and not in some distant place and time (Exo_19:8; Exo_24:3)." [Note: Merrill, "Numbers," in The Old Testament Explorer, p. 98.]

OUTLINE

I.    Experiences of the older generation in the wilderness chs. 1-25

A.    Preparations for entering the Promised Land from the south chs. 1-10

1.    The first census and the organization of the people chs. 1-4

2.    Commands and rituals to observe in preparation for entering the land chs. 5-9

3.    The departure from Sinai ch. 10

B.    The rebellion and judgment of the unbelieving generation chs. 11-25

1.    The cycle of rebellion, atonement, and death chs. 11-20

2.    The climax of rebellion, hope, and the end of dying chs. 21-25

II.    Prospects of the younger generation in the land chs. 26-36

A.    Preparations for entering the Promised Land from the east chs. 26-32

1.    The second census ch. 26

2.    Provisions and commands to observe in preparation for entering the land chs. 27-30

3.    Reprisal against Midian and the settlement of the Transjordanian tribes chs. 31-32

B.    Warning and encouragement of the younger generation chs. 33-36

1.    Review of the journey from Egypt Num_33:1-49

2.    Anticipation of the Promised Land Num_33:50 to Num_36:13

Conclusion of Numbers

The Book of Numbers is a lesson in the importance of trust and obedience. The Israelites frequently failed to trust and obey God in the hours of their trials, and consequently God postponed His blessing. Most of them never enjoyed the good things that God had for them. Obedience to God is essential on our part.

". . . the point of the book of Numbers is important for God’s people in any age: Exact obedience to God is crucial. Numbers makes the point most especially through examples of disobedience such as those found in chs. 11-21." [Note: Ashley, p. ix.]

The book also teaches us that the failures of His chosen human instruments do not frustrate God’s plans any more than the opposition of His enemies. The Israelites’ unfaithfulness to God did not turn Him back from faithfully carrying out His commitments to His chosen people. I believe the outstanding characteristic of God that Numbers reveals is His graciousness.

"Perhaps the most prominent theme is that of the gracious providence of the Lord in caring for all of Israel’s needs-militarily, physically, nutritionally and spiritually-in spite of constant rebellions by the people, both leadership and rank and file." [Note: Riggans, p. 2.]

The process of divine discipline is another important revelation. We see in Numbers how God deals with His people when they fail to trust and obey Him. On the one hand He does not permit them to enjoy what He has promised. On the other hand He works with them to prepare them to be stronger when they face the same tests again. Where their sin abounds, His grace abounds even more greatly. He makes the broken bone stronger at the place of the break than it was before the break.

Regarding the Israelites’ and our entering into all that God wants us to enjoy, everything depends on one’s attitude toward God. If we allow the giants and walls that stand between ourselves and God’s will to block our view of God, we will fail. Unbelief will lead to disobedience that will lead to discipline that will lead to frustration and death. However if we see the giants and walls overshadowed by God, as Caleb and Joshua did, we will succeed. Trust will lead to obedience that will lead to blessing that will lead to progress and life.

"Let us therefore be diligent to enter that rest, lest anyone fall through following the same example of disobedience" (Heb_4:11).

Bibliography

Aharoni, Yohanan. The Land of the Bible. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1979.

Aharoni, Yohanan, and Michael Avi-Yonah. The Macmillan Bible Atlas. Revised ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1977.

Albright, William Foxwell. The Archaeology of Palestine. 1949. Revised ed. Pelican Archaeology series. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin books, 1956.

Allegro, J. M. "The Meaning of nophel in Numbers xxiv. 4, 16." Expository Times 65 (July 1954):316-17.

Allen, Ronald B. "Numbers." In Genesis-Numbers. Vol. 2 of The Expositor’s Bible Commentary. 12 vols. Edited by Frank E. Gaebelein and Richard P. Polcyn. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1990.

_____. "The Theology of the Balaam Oracles." In Tradition and Testament: Essays in Honor of Charles Lee Feinberg. Edited by John S. and Paul D. Feinberg. Chicago: Moody Press, 1981.

Amiran, Ruth. Goethert, Rolf; and Ilan, Ornit. "The Well at Arad." Biblical Archaeology Review 13:2 (March-April 1987):40-44.

Arnold, Neil W. "The High Priestly Blessing." Exegesis and Exposition 2:1 (Summer 1987):45-50.

Ashley, Timothy R. The Book of Numbers. New International Commentary on the Old Testament series. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1993.

Baly, Denis. "Elath, Ezion-geber, and the Red Sea." Biblical Illustrator 9:3 (Spring 1983):66-69.

Bartlett, John R. "The Conquest of Sihon’s Kingdom: A Literary Re-examination." Journal of Biblical Literature 97:3 (September 1978):347-51.

Baskin, J. R. "Origen on Balaam: The Dilemma of the Unworthy Prophet." Vigiliae Christianae 37 (1983):22-35.

Beck, J. A. "Geography and the Narrative Shape of Numbers 13." Bibliotheca Sacra 157:627 (July-September 2000):271-80.

Brichto, Herbert Chanan. "The Case of the Sota and a Reconsideration of Biblical ’Law.’" Hebrew Union College Annual 46 (1975):55-70.

Brin, Gershon. "The Formulae ’From . . . and Onward/Upward’ (m . . . whl’h/wmslh)." Journal of Biblical Literature 99:2 (1980):161-71.

Budd, Philip J. Numbers. Word Biblical Commentary series. Waco: Word Books, Publisher, 1984.

Chisholm, Robert B., Jr. "Does God ’Change His Mind’?" Bibliotheca Sacra 152:608 (October-December 1995):387-99.

_____. "Does God Deceive?" Bibliotheca Sacra 155:617 (January-March 1998):11-28.

Coats, George W. "Conquest Traditions in the Wilderness Theme." Journal of Biblical Literature 95:2 (1976):177-90.

Constable, Thomas L. Talking to God: What the Bible Teaches about Prayer. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1995; reprint ed., Eugene, Oreg.: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2005.

_____. "What Prayer Will and Will Not Change." In Essays in Honor of J. Dwight Pentecost, pp. 99-113. Edited by Stanley D. Toussaint and Charles H. Dyer. Chicago: Moody Press, 1986.

Cross, Frank Moore. Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973.

Darby, John Nelson. Synopsis of the Books of the Bible. Revised ed. 5 vols. New York: Loizeaux Brothers Publishers, 1942.

de Boer, Pieter A. H. "Numbers vi 27." Vetus Testamentum 32:1 (January 1982):3-13.

De Haan, Martin Ralph. The Chemistry of the Blood and Other Stirring Messages. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1943.

Dyer, Charles H., and Eugene H. Merrill. The Old Testament Explorer. Nashville: Word Publishing, 2001. Reissued as Nelson’s Old Testament Survey. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2001.

Emmrich, Martin. "The Case against Moses Reopened." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 46:1 (March 2003):53-62.

Fawver, Jay D., and R. Larry Overstreet. "Moses and Preventive Medicine." Bibliotheca Sacra 147:587 (July-September 1990):270-85.

Felder, Cain Hope. Troubling Biblical Waters: Race, Class, and Family. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 1989.

Fishbane, Michael. "Accusations of Adultery: A Study of Law and Scribal Practice in Num_5:11-31." Hebrew Union College Annual 45 (1974):25-45.

_____. "Form and Reformulation of the Biblical Priestly Blessing." Journal of the American Oriental Society 103:1 (January-March 1983):115-21.

_____. "Through the Looking Glass: Reflections on Eze_43:3, Num_12:8 and 1Co_13:8." Hebrew Annual Review 10 (1986):63-74.

Fouts, David M. "A Defense of the Hyperbolic Interpretation of Large Numbers in the Old Testament." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 40:3 (September 1997):377-87.

_____. "The Incredible Numbers of the Hebrew Kings." In Giving the Sense: Understanding and Using Old Testament Historical Texts. Edited by David M. Howard and Michael A. Grisanti. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2003.

_____. "The Use of Large Numbers in the Old Testament with Particular Emphasis on the Use of ’elep." Th.D. dissertation, Dallas Theological Seminary, 1992.

Frymer-Kensky, Tikva. "The Strange Case of the Suspected Sotah (Numbers V:11-31)." Vetus Testamentum 34:1 (1984):11-26.

_____. "The Trial Before God of an Accused Adulteress." Bible Review 2:3 (Fall 1986):46-49.

Gardner, Joseph L., ed. Reader’s Digest Atlas of the Bible. Pleasantville, N.Y.: Reader’s Digest Association, 1985.

Haran, Menahem. "Studies in the Account of the Levitical Cities." Journal of Biblical Literature 80:1 (March 1961):45-54, and 80:2 (June 1961):156-65.

Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1969.

Hays, J. Daniel. "The Cushites: A Black Nation in the Bible." Bibliotheca Sacra 153:612 (October-December 1996):396-409.

Herzog, Ze’ev; Miriam Aharoni; and Anson F. Rainey. "Arad." Biblical Archaeology Review 13:2 (March-April 1987):16-35.

Hess, Richard S. Joshua: An Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries series. Leicester, England, and Downers Grove, Ill.: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996.

Hoffner, Harry A., Jr. "Ancient Views of Prophecy and Fulfillment: Mesopotamia and Asia Minor." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 30:3 (September 1987):257-65.

Hoftijzer, Jacob. "The Prophet Balaam in a 6th-Century Aramaic Inscription." Biblical Archaeologist 39:1 (March 1976):11-17.

Hoogsteen, T. "The Bronze Serpent History." Kerux 2:3 (December 1987):10-15.

Horn, Siegfried H. Biblical Archaeology: A Generation of Discovery. Washington: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1985.

Jagersma, H. "Some Remarks on the Jussive in Num_6:24-26." In Von Kanaan bis Kerala, pp. 131-36. Edited by W. C. Delsman, et al. Kevelaer, Germany: Verlag Butzer and Bercker, 1982.

Jastrow, Morris, Jr. Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria. 1911. Reprint ed. New York: Benjamin Blom, Inc., 1971.

Jensen, Irving L. Numbers. Everyman’s Bible Commentary series. Chicago: Moody Press, 1964.

Josephus, Flavius. The Works of Flavius Josephus. Translated by William Whiston. Antiquities of the Jews. London: T. Nelson and Sons, 1866.

Kallai, Zecharia. "The Southern Border of the Land of Israel-Pattern and Application." Vetus Testamentum 37:4 (October 1987):438-45.

_____. "The Wandering-Traditions from Kadesh-Barnea to Canaan: A Study in Biblical Historiography." Journal of Jewish Studies 33:1-2 (Spring-Autumn 1982):175-84.

Keil, C. F., and Franz Delitzsch. The Pentateuch. 3 vols. Translated by James Martin. Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. N.p.; reprint ed., Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., n.d.

Kitchen, Kenneth A. Ancient Orient and Old Testament. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1966.

_____. The Bible In Its World. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1977.

_____. "The Old Testament in its Context: 2 From Egypt to the Jordan." Theological Students’ Fellowship Bulletin 60 (1971):3-11.

_____. On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, Mich. and Cambridge, U.K.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003.

Kselman, J. S. "A Note on Numbers xii 6-8." Vetus Testamentum 26:4 (October 1976):500-504.

Lange, John Peter, ed. Commentary on the Holy Scriptures. 12 vols. Reprint ed., Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1960. Vol. 2: Numbers-Ruth, by John Peter Lange, William J. Schroeder, F. R. Fay, and Paulus Cassel. Translated by Samuel T. Lowrie, A. Gosman, George R. Bliss, and P. H. Streenstra.

Lemaire, Andre. "Fragments from the Book of Balaam Found at Deir Alla." Biblical Archaeology Review 11:5 (September-October 1985):27-39.

Liebreich, Leon J. "The Songs of Ascents and the Priestly Blessings." Journal of Biblical Literature 74 (1955):33-36.

Livingston, G. Herbert. The Pentateuch in Its Cultural Environment. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1974.

Longman, Tremper, III and Raymond B. Dillard. An Introduction to the Old Testament. 2^nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006.

Maarsingh, B. Numbers: a practical commentary. Translated by John Vriend. Text and Interpretation series. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1987.

Magonet, Jonathan. "The Korah Rebellion." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 24 (1982):3-25.

Margalith (Windreich), M. "The Transgression of Moses and Aaron-Num_20:1-13." Proceedings of the Fifth World Congress of Jewish Studies. Vol. I. Jerusalem: World Union of Jewish Studies, 1968.

Marshall, John. "The Prophet Balaam." The Banner of Truth 275-76 (August-September 1986):41-54.

Mattingly, Gerald L. "The Exodus-Conquest and the Archaeology of Transjordan: New Light on an Old Problem." Grace Theological Journal 4:2 (1983):245-62.

McKane, W. "Poison, Trial by Ordeal and the Cup of Wrath." Vetus Testamentum 30:4 (October 1980):474-92.

Merrill, Eugene H. Kingdom of Priests. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1987.

_____. "Numbers." In The Bible Knowledge Commentary: Old Testament, pp. 215-58. Edited by John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck. Wheaton: Scripture Press Publications, Victor Books, 1985.

_____. "A Theology of the Pentateuch." In A Biblical Theology of the Old Testament, pp. 7-87. Edited by Roy B. Zuck. Chicago: Moody Press, 1991.

_____. "The Veracity of the Word: A Summary of Major Archaeological Finds." Kindred Spirit 34:3 (Winter 2010):13.

Milgrom, Jacob. "The Cultic Use of grb/ngs." Proceedings of the Fifth World Congress of Jewish Studies. Vol. I. Jerusalem: World Union of Jewish Studies, 1969.

_____. "The Levitical Town: An Exercise in Realistic Planning." Journal of Jewish Studies 33:1-2 (Spring-Autumn 1982):185-88.

_____. Numbers. JPS Torah Commentary series. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1990.

_____. "Of Hems and Tassels." Biblical Archaeology Review 9:3 (May-June 1983):61-65.

_____. "The Paradox of the Red Cow (Num. xix)." Vetus Testamentum 31:1 (1981):62-72.

Miller, J. Maxwell. "The Israelite Journey through (around) Moab and Moabite Toponymy." Journal of Biblical Literature 108:4 (1989):577-95.

Monson, James M. The Land Between. Jerusalem: By the Author, P.O. Box 1276, 1983.

Morgan, G. Campbell. Living Messages of the Books of the Bible. 2 vols. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1912.

Na’aman, N. "’Hebron Was Built Seven Years before Zoan in Egypt’ (Numbers xiii 22)." Vetus Testamentum 31:4 (1981):488-92.

The NET (New English Translation) Bible. First beta printing. Spokane, Wash.: Biblical Studies Press, 2001.

The New Bible Dictionary, 1962 ed. S.v. "Amorites," by A. R. Millard.

_____. S.v. "Balaam," by A. van Selms.

_____. S.v. "Edom, Edomites," by J. A. Thompson.

_____. S.v. "King’s Highway," by D. J. Wiseman.

_____. S.v. "Trees," by F. N. Hepper.

Noordtzij, A. Numbers. Translated by Ed van der Maas. Bible Student’s Commentary series. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1983.

Olson, Dennis T. The Death of the Old and the Birth of the New: The Framework of the Book of Numbers and the Pentateugh. Brown Judaic Studies series. Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1985.

Ouzounellis, Theodore. "Prophecy of Balaam Found in Jordan." Bible and Spade 6:4 (Autumn 1977):121-24.

Philip, James. Numbers. The Communicator’s Commentary series. Waco: Word Books, 1987.

"The Priestly Blessing." Buried History 18:2 (June 1982):27-30.

Riggans, Walter. Numbers. Daily Study Bible series. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983.

Rogers, Cleon. "Moses: Meek or Miserable?" Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 29:3 (September 1986):257-63.

Rooker, Mark F. Leviticus. The New American Commentary series. Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2000.

Ruble, Richard L. "The Doctrine of Dreams." Bibliotheca Sacra 125:500 (October-December 1968):360-64.

Rushing, Ronald Lee. "Phinehas’ Covenant of Peace." Th.D. dissertation, Dallas Theological Seminary, 1988.

Safren, Jonathan D. "Balaam and Abraham." Vetus Testamentum 38:1 (January 1988):105-13.

Sailhamer, John H. "The Mosaic Law and the Theology of the Pentateuch." Westminster Theological Journal 53 (Fall 1991):241-61.

_____. The Pentateuch as Narrative. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992.

Savelle, Charles H. "Canonical and Extracanonical Portraits of Balaam." Bibliotheca Sacra 166:664 (October-December 2009):387-404.

Schulte, John Andres. "Vows." Exegesis and Exposition 3:1 (Fall 1988):48-51.

Schwantes, Seigfried J. A Short History of the Ancient Near East. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1965.

Smith, Ralph L. "Baal." Biblical Illustrator 10:2 (Winter 1984):12-16.

"Some Notes on Quail Poisoning." Journal of the American Medical Association 211:7 (February 16, 1970):1186-87.

Spencer, John R. "The Tasks of the Levites: smr and sb’." Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 96:2 (1984):267-71.

Student Map Manual. Jerusalem: Pictorial Archive (Near Eastern History) Est., 1979.

Tosato, Angelo. "The Literary Structure of the First Two Poems of Balaam (Num. xxiii 7-10, 18-24)." Vetus Testamentum 29:1 (January 1979):98-106.

Ulrich, Dean R. "The Framing Function of the Narratives about Zelophehad’s Daughters." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 41:4 (December 1998):529-38.

Unger’s Bible Dictionary. 1957 ed. S.v. "Covenant of Salt."

Van Oosting, James. "Moses, Hezekiah, and Yale’s gang of four." Reformed Journal 33:11 (November 1983):7-8.

Van Seters, John. "The Conquest of Sihon’s Kingdom: A Literary Examination." Journal of Biblical Literature 91:2 (June 1972):182-97.

Weisman, Ze’ev. "The Personal Spirit as Inspiring Authority." Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 93:2 (1981):225-34.

Wenham, Gordon J. "Aaron’s Rod (Numbers 17:16-28)." Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 93:2 (1981):280-81.

_____. Numbers. Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries series. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1981.

Wenham, John W. The Goodness of God. Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1974.

_____. "The Large Numbers in the Old Testament." Tyndale Bulletin 18 (1967):19-53.

Whybray, R. Norman. Introduction to the Pentateuch. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1995.

Wiersbe, Warren W. On Being a Servant of God. Nashville: T. Nelson, 1993; reprint ed., Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1999.

Wolf, Herbert M. An Introduction to the Old Testament Pentateuch. Chicago: Moody Press, 1991.

Wood, Leon. Distressing Days of the Judges. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1975.

_____. Israel’s United Monarchy. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1979.

_____. The Prophets of Israel. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1979.

_____. A Survey of Israel’s History. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1970.

Wright, David P. "Purification from Corpse Contamination in Numbers XXI 19-24." Vetus Testamentum 35:2 (1985):213-23.

The Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia. S.v. "Arad," by Siegfried H. Horn.

_____. S.v. "Gods, False," by Andrew K. Helmbolt.

Young, Edward J. My Servants the Prophets. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1952.

Young, Robert. Analytical Concordance to the Bible, 22nd American ed. S.v. "Arabia."

The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible. S.v. "Eschol, by R. C. Ridall."