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Bible Encyclopedias
Chronology of the New Testament
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
or BC
Addition of 215 Years for Longer Sojourn in Egypt
The Exodus from Egypt
ALIGN =RIGHT>cir 1448
. . . .
Yahweh appeared to Moses at Horeb
ALIGN =RIGHT>1449
. . . .
Flight of Moses from Egypt
ALIGN =RIGHT>1488
. . . .
Birth of Moses
ALIGN =RIGHT>1528
. . . .
Birth of Aaron
ALIGN =RIGHT>1532
. . . .
Death of Levi (approximation)
ALIGN =RIGHT>1570
1785
*Possible date of Amram's birth
ALIGN =RIGHT>1587
. . . .
Death of Joseph
ALIGN =RIGHT>cir 1594
1809
Death of Jacob, aged 147
ALIGN =RIGHT>1647
1862
Birth of Kohath, possibly
ALIGN =RIGHT>1647
. . . .
Jacob and his sons go down to Egypy
ALIGN =RIGHT>1664
1879
Joseph exalted over Egypt, 10 years estimated for 7 years of plent y and part of years of famine
ALIGN =RIGHT>1674
1889
Joseph sold by his brethren
ALIGN =RIGHT>1687
1902
Birth of Benjamin, death of Rachel
ALIGN =RIGHT>1698
. . . .
Jacob left Paddan-Aram, meeting with Esau
ALIGN =RIGHT>1699
. . . .
Birth of Joseph
ALIGN =RIGHT>1704
1919
† Birth of Levi, probably
ALIGN =RIGHT>1708
1923
Jacob marries Leah and Rachel
ALIGN =RIGHT>1711
. . . .
His flight from Hebron to Haran
ALIGN =RIGHT>1718
. . . .
Death of Abraham
ALIGN =RIGHT>1780
1995
Birth of Esau and Jacob
ALIGN =RIGHT>1795
2010
Marriage of Isaac and Rebekah
ALIGN =RIGHT>1815
. . . .
Death of Sarah (Genesis 24:67 )
ALIGN =RIGHT>1816
. . . .
Birth of Isaac
ALIGN =RIGHT>1855
2070
Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah
ALIGN =RIGHT>cir 1856
. . . .
Birth of Ishmael
ALIGN =RIGHT>1869
. . . .
Invasion by Chedorlaomer and Amraphel
ALIGN =RIGHT>cir 1875
2090
Abraham's sojourn in Egypt
ALIGN =RIGHT>cir 1878
. . . .
His migration from Haran to Canaan
ALIGN =RIGHT>1880
2095
Birth of Sarah
ALIGN =RIGHT>1939
. . . .
Birth of Abraham
ALIGN =RIGHT>cir 1955
2170
I. Chronology of the Life of Jesus
1. Birth of Jesus
(1) Death of Herod
(2) Census of Quirinius
(3) Star of the Magi
(4) Course of Abijah
(5) Day and Month
(6) Summary
2. Baptism of Jesus
3. First Passover
4. Death of John the Baptist
5. Length of Jesus' Ministry
6. Death of Jesus
7. Summary of Dates
Literature
II. Chronology of the Apostolic Age
1. Paul's Conversion
2. Death of Herod Agrippa I
3. Famine under Claudius
4. Sergius Paulus
5. Edict of Claudius
6. Gallio
7. Festus
8. Relative Chronology of Acts
9. Pauline Epistles
10. Release and Death of Paul
11. Death of Peter
12. Death of James the Just
13. The Synoptic Gospels, etc.
14. Death of John
15. Summary of Dates
Literature
The current Christian era is reckoned from the birth of Jesus and is based upon the calculations of Dionysius (6th century). Subsequent investigation has shown that the Dionysian date is at least four years too late. Several eras were in use in the time of Jesus; but of these only the Varronian will be used coördinately with the Dionysian in the discussion of the chronology of the life of Jesus, 753 A.U.C. being synchronous with 1 bc and 754 A.U.C. with 1 ad.
I. Chronology of the Life of Jesus
1. Birth of Jesus
Jesus was born before the death of Herod the Great (Matthew 2:1 ) at the time of a census or enrollment made in the territory of Herod in accordance with a decree of Augustus when Quirinius (Revised Version; Cyrenius, the King James Version) was exercising authority in the Roman province of Syria (Luke 2:1 f). At the time of Jesus' birth a star led the Magi of the East to seek in Jerusalem the infant whom they subsequently found in Bethlehem ( Matthew 2:1 ). John the Baptist was six months older than Jesus (Luke 1:36 ) and he was born in the days of Herod (Luke 1:5; compare Luke 2:1 ) after his father, Zacharias, of the priestly course of Abijah, had been performing the functions of his office in the temple.
(1) Death of Herod
The death of Herod the Great occurred in the spring of 750/4. (NOTE: The alternative numbers are bc or ad, i.e, 750 A.U.C. = 4 bc, etc.) He ruled from his appointment in Rome 714/40 ( Ant. ,
This date for Herod's death is confirmed by the evidence for the duration of the reigns of his three sons. Archelaus was deposed in 759/6 (Dio Cassius lv.27 in the consulship of Aemilius Lepidus and Lucius Arruntius) in the 10th year of his reign (Ant. ,
(2) Census of Quirinius
The census or enrollment, which, according to Luke 2:1 f, was the occasion of the journey of Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem where Jesus was born, is connected with a decree of Augustus embracing the Greek-Roman world. This decree must have been carried out in Palestine by Herod and probably in accordance with the Jewish method - each going to his own city - rather than the Roman ( Dig . 15, 4, 2; Zumpt, Das Geburtsjahr Christi , 195; Kenyon, Greek Papyri in the British Museum , III, 124 f; Schürer, Theol. Ztg , 1907, 683 f; and on the other hand, Ramsay, Expositor , 1908, I, 19, note). Certainly there is no intimation of an insurrection such as characterized a later census (Acts 5:37; Ant ,
(3) Star of the Magi
The identification of the star of the Magi (Matthew 2:2; compare Matthew 2:7 , Matthew 2:9 , Matthew 2:16; Macrobius, Sat ., II, 4; Sanclemente, op. cit., 456; Ramsay, op. cit., 215ff) and the determination of the time of its appearance cannot be made with certainty, although it has been associated with a conjunction in 747/7 and 748/6 of Saturn and Jupiter in the sign of Pisces - a constellation which was thought to stand in close relation with the Jewish nation (Ideler, Handbuch d. math. u. tech. Chron ., II, 400ff). When the Magi came to Jerusalem, however, Herod was present in the city; and this must have been at least several months before his death, for during that time he was sick and absent from Jerusalem (Ant. ,
(4) Course of Abijah
The chronological calculations of the time of the service of the priestly course of Abijah in the temple, which are made by reckoning back from the time of the course of Jehoiarib which, according to Jewish tradition, was serving at the time of the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, are uncertain (Schürer, op. cit., II, 337, note 3; compare Lewin, Fasti Sacri , 836).
(5) Day and Month
The day and month of Jesus' birth are also uncertain. December 25 was celebrated by the church in the West as early as the 2nd century - if the date in Hippolytus on Dan., IV, 23, be genuine (compare Ehrhardt, Altchr. Lit ., 1880-1900, 383); but January 6 was celebrated in the East as the anniversary both of the birth and of the baptism. The fact that shepherds were feeding their flocks at night when Jesus was born (Luke 2:8 ) makes it improbable that the season of the year was winte r.
(6) Summary
The birth of Jesus may therefore be assigned to the period 747/7 to 751/5, before the death of Herod, at the time of a census made by Herod in accordance with a decree of Augustus and when Quirinius was exercising extraordinary authority in Syria
2. Baptism of Jesus
The Synoptic Gospels begin their description of the public ministry of Jesus with an account of the ministry of John the Baptist (Matthew 3:1; Mark 1:1; Luke 3:1; compare John 1:19; John 4:24; Josephus, Ant ,
3. First Passover
At the time of the first Passover in Jesus' ministry the Herodian temple had been building 46 years (John 2:20 ). Herod began the temple in the 18th year of his reign ( Ant. , XV, xi, 1, which probably corrects the statement in BJ , I, xxi, 1 that it was the 15th year; compare Schürer, op. cit., I, 369 f, note 12). As Josephus reckons from the accession of Herod in 717/37, the 18th year would be 734/20 to 735/21 and 46 years later would be 780/27 to 781/28. The interval implied in John between this Passover an d the beginning of Jesus' ministry agrees well with the Lucan dating of the baptism in 779/26.
4. Death of John the Baptist
The imprisonment of John the Baptist, which preceded the beginning of Jesus' Galilean work, was continued for a time (Mt 11:2-19; Lk 7:18-35) but was finally terminated by beheading at the order of Herod Antipas. Announcement of the death was made to Jesus while in the midst of His Galilean ministry (Matthew 14:3-12; Mk 6:14-29; Luke 9:7-9 ). Josephus reports that the defeat of Antipas by Aretas, in the summer of 789/36, was popularly regarded as a Divine punishment for the murder of John ( Ant. ,
5. Length of Jesus' Ministry
The Synoptic Gospels mention the Passion Passover at which Jesus' ministry was terminated, but they contain no data by which the interval between the imprisonment of John the Baptist and this Passover can be fixed with certainty. Yet indications are not wanting that the interval consisted of at least two years. The Sabbath controversy broke out in Galilee when the grain was still standing in the fields (Matthew 12:1; Mark 2:23; Luke 6:1 ) and the condition of the grass when the Five Thousand were fed (Matthew 14:15; Mark 6:39; Luke 9:12 ) points to the springtime, the Passion Passover marking the return of still another springtime (compare also Luke 13:7; Matthew 23:37 ). But the Gospel of John mentions explicitly three Passovers (John 2:23; John 6:4; John 11:55 ) and probably implies a fourth (John 5:1 ), Thus necessitating a ministry of at least two years and making probable a ministry of three years after the first Passover. The Passover of John 6:4 cannot be eliminated on textual grounds, for the documentary evidence is conclusive in its favor and the argument against it based on the statements of certain patristic writers is unconvincing (compare Turner, HDB , I, 407 f; Zahn, Kom ., IV, 708ff). The indications of time from John 6:4 - the Passover when the Five Thousand were fed in Galilee - to John 11:55 - the Passion Passover - are definite and clear ( John 7:2; John 10:22 ). But the interval between the first Passover (John 2:23 ) and the Galilean Passover (John 6:4 ) must have been one and may have been two years. The following considerations favor the latter view: Jesus was present in Jerusalem at a feast (John 5:1 ) which is not named but is called simply "a" or "the" feast of the Jews. The best authorities for the text are divided, some supporting the insertion, others the omission of the definite article before "feast." If the article formed part of the original text, the feast may have been either Tabernacles - from the Jewish point of view - or Passover - from the Christian point of view. If the article was wanting in the original text, the identification of the feast must be made on contextual and other grounds. But the note of time in John 4:35 indicates the lapse of about nine months since the Passover of John 2:23 and it is not likely that the Galilean ministry which preceded the feeding of the Five Thousand lasted only about three months. In fact this is rendered impossible by the condition of the grain in the fields at the time of the Sabbath controversy. The identification of the feast of John 5:1 with Purim, even if the article be not genuine, is extremely improbable; and if so, a Passover must have intervened between John 2:23 and John 6:4 , making the ministry of Jesus extend over a period of three years and the months which preceded the Passover of John 2:23 . While the identification cannot be made with certainty, if the feast was Passover the subject of the controversy with the Jews in Jerusalem as well as the season of the year would harmonize with the Synoptic account of the Sabbath controversy in Galilee which probably followed this Passover (compare the variant reading in Luke 6:1 ).
6. Death of Jesus
Jesus was put to death in Jerusalem at the time of the Passover when Pontius Pilate was procurator of Judea (Matthew 27:2; Mark 15:1; Luke 23:1; John 18:29; John 19:1; Acts 3:13; Acts 4:27; Acts 13:28; 1 Timothy 6:13; Tac. Ann . xv.44), Caiaphas being the high priest (Matthew 26:3 , Matthew 26:17; John 11:49; John 18:13 ) and Herod Antipas the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea (Luke 23:7 ). Pilate was procurator from 779/26 to 789/36 (Ant. ,
7. Summary of Dates
1. Birth of Jesus, 748/6.
2. Death of Herod the Great, 750/4.
3. Baptism of Jesus, 779/26.
4. First Passover of Jesus' ministry, 780/27.
5. Death of Jesus, 783/30.
Literature
Schürer, Geschichte des Jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi , 3. und 4. Aufl., 1901-9, 3 volumes, English translation of the 2nd edition, in 5 volumes, 1885-94; Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie , 1825-26, 2 volumes; Wieseler, Chronologische Synopse der Evangelien , 1843, English translation; Lewin, Fasti Sacri , 1865; Turner, article "Chronology of the NT" in HDB , 1900, I. 403-25; von Soden, article "Chronology" in Cheyne and Black, EB , 1899, I, 799-819; Ramsay, Was Christ Born at Bethlehem? 1898; F. R. Montgomery Hitchcock, article "Dates" in Hastings, Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels; Mommsen, Res Gestae Divi Augusti 2.
II. Chronology of the Apostolic Age
The chronology of the apostolic age must be based on the data in Acts and the epistolary literature of the New Testament which afford contacts with persons or events of the Greek-Roman world. From the fixed points Thus secured a general outline of the relative chronology may be established with reasonable probability.
1. Paul's Conversion
Paul was converted near Damascus (Acts 9:3; Acts 22:5; Acts 26:12; Galatians 1:17 ). After a brief stay in that city (Acts 9:19 ) he went to Arabia and then came again to Damascus (Galatians 1:17 ). When he left Damascus the second time, he returned to Jerusalem after an absence of three years (Galatians 1:18 ). The flight of Paul from Damascus (Acts 9:24 ) probably terminated his second visit to the city. At that time the ethnarch of Aretas, the king of the Nabateans, acting with the resident Jews (Acts 9:23 f), guarded t he city to seize him ( 2 Corinthians 11:32 ). Aretas
2. Death of Herod Agrippa I
Herod Agrippa I died in Caesarea shortly after a Passover season (Acts 12:23; compare Acts 12:3 , Acts 12:19 ). Caligula had given him the tetrarchy of Philip and of Lysanias in 37 ad - the latter either at this time or later - with the title of king ( Ant. ,
3. Famine Under Claudius
The prophecy of a famine and its fulfillment under Claudius (Acts 11:28 ) are associated in Acts with the death of Herod Agrippa I (Acts 11:30; Acts 12:23 ). Famines in Rome during the reign of Claudius are mentioned by Suetonius ( Claud . xviii), Dio Cassius (lx.11), Tacitus (Annals xii.43), and Orosius (vii.6). Josephus narrates in the time of Fadus the generosity of Helena during a famine in Palestine ( Ant. , XX, ii, 5), but subsequently dates the famine generally in the time of Fadus and Alexander. The famine in P alestine would fall therefore at some time between 44 and 48 (Schürer, op. cit., I, 567, note 8).
4. Sergius Paulus
When Paul visited Cyprus with Barnabas the island was administered by Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7 ), a proprietor with the title proconsul (Marquardt, op. cit., I, 391). There is an inscription from Cyprus (Cagnat, Inscr. graec. ad res rom. pertin ., III; 930) dating from the 1st century, and probably from the year 53 (Zahn, Neue kirch. Zeitschr ., 1904, XV, 194) in which an incident in the career of a certain Apollonius is dated in the proconsulship of Paulus (ἐπὶ Παύλου ( ἀνθ )υπάτου ,
5. Edict of Claudius
When Paul came to Corinth for the first time he met Aquila and Priscilla, who had left Rome because of an edict of Claudius expelling the Jews from the city (Acts 18:2 ). Suetonius mentions an expulsion of the Jews from Rome by Claudius but gives no date ( Claud . xxv; compare Dio Cassius lx.6). Orosius however dates the edict in the 9th year of Claudius or 49 ad (Hist . vii.6, 15); and though Josephus, from whom he quotes, does not mention this edict. but records the favor shown by Claudius to the Jews and to Herod Agrippa I (Ant. ,
6. Gallio
During Paul's first sojourn in Corinth the apostle was brought before the proconsul Gallio (Acts 18:12 ). This could not have been earlier than the year 44 when Claudius gave Achaia back to the Senate and the province was administered by a proprietor with the title of proconsul (Dio Cassius lx.24; Marquardt, op. cit., I, 331 f; Ramsay, The Expositor ., 1897, I, 207). Moreover the career of Seneca makes it improbable that his brother would be advanced to this position before 49 or 50 (Harnack, Chron ., I, 237; Wieseler, Chron. d. apos . Zeitalters , 119). There is a fragmentary inscription from Delphi containing a letter from the emperor Claudius in which mention is made of Gallio. The inscription is dated by the title of the emperor which contains the number 26. This is referred naturally to the acclammatio as " imperator " and dated in the year 52 before August, after which time the number 27 occurs in the title of Claudian inscriptions. Gallio may therefore have been proconsul from the spring or summer of the year 51-52 or 52-53. The latter seems the more probable time (compare Aem. Bourguet, De rebus Delphicis , 1905, 63 f; Ramsay, The Expositor ., 1909, I, 467 f; Princeton Theological Review , 1911, 290 f; 1912, 139 f; Deissmann, Paulus , 1911, 159-177; Lietzmann, Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Theologie , 1911, 345-54).
7. Festus
When Paul had been for two years a prisoner in Caesarea Felix was succeeded by Festus as procurator of Judea (Acts 24:27 ). The accession of Festus, which is placed by Eusebius in the Church History in the reign of Nero ( Historia Ecclesiastica , II, 22, 1), is dated in the Chronicle in the version of Jerome in the 2nd year of Nero, 56 ad, and in the Armenian version in the 14th year of Claudius, 54 ad. The excerpts from the Chronicle in Syncellus apparently follow the text underlying the version of Jerome, but state simply that Festus was sent as successor of Felix by Nero (ed. Schoene, II, 154). After his removal from office Felix was tried in Rome, but escaped punishment through the influence of his brother Pallas, who, according to Josephus, was in favor with Nero at that time (Ant. , XX, viii, 9). Pallas was removed from office before February 13, 55 ad (Tac. Ann . xiii.14, 1; compare 15, 1), but apparently continued to have influence with the emperor; for he fixed the terms of his removal and was permitted to enjoy his fortune for several years (Tac. Ann . xiii.14, 1 f; 23, 1-3). His death occurred in 62 ad (Tac. Ann . xiv.65, 1). The trial of Felix must therefore have occurred before 62; but it is impossible to place it before the removal of Pallas, for this would necessitate the removal of Felix in 54 ad, and this is excluded by the fact that the first summer of Nero's reign fell in 55 ad. But if Eusebius reckoned the imperial years from September 1st after the accession (Turner, Jour. of Theol. Studies , 1902, 120 f; HDB , I, 418 f), the summer of the second year of Nero would fall in 57. In any event the removal and trial of Felix must have fallen after the removal of Pallas. The date of the Eusebian Chronicle is thus without support from Tacitus or Josephus, and its value depends on the character of the source from which it was obtained - if there was such a source, for it is at least possible that the definite date owes its origin solely to the necessities imposed on Eusebius by the form of the Chronicle. It is not unlike ly that the error of 5 years made by Eusebius in the reign of Agrippa
But if the summer of 57 ad is the earliest date possible for the accession of Festus, the summer of 60 ad is the latest date that is possible. Albinus, the successor of Festus, was present in Jerusalem in October, 62 ad (Ant. , XX, ix, 1ff), and while the administration of Festus was probably shorter than that of Felix (compare Ant , XX, viii, 9-11; BJ , II, xiv, 1 with Ant , XX, vii, 1-3; BJ , II, 12-13), it is not likely that it lasted less than two years. But as between 57 ad and 60 ad, probability favo rs the latter. For greater justice is Thus done to the words of Paul to Felix: "Forasmuch as I know that thou hast been of many years a judge unto this nation," etc. (Acts 24:10 ). Felix was appointed by Claudius in 52 ad (Tac. Ann . xii. 54; Ant , XX, v, 2) and was continued in office by Nero. Most of the events of his administration are narrated by Josephus under Nero (Ant. , XX, viii, 5ff); and although Tacitus mentions an administration of Felix in Samaria when Cumanus was administering Galilee (Ann . xii.54) , the omission of any direct reference to Judea, the unusual character of such a double administration and the explicit statement of Josephus that Claudius sent Felix as successor of Cumanus, make it unlikely that Paul's statement is to be understood of an administration beginning earlier than 52 ad. If Festus succeeded in the summer of 60 ad, Paul's arrest would fall in 58 and the "many years" of Felix' administration would cover a period of 6 years, from 52 ad to 58 ad (compare Schürer, op. cit., I, 577 f, note 38). Ramsay argues in favor of 57 ad as the year of Paul's arrest and 59 ad as the year of the accession of Festus (Pauline and Other Studies , 1906, 345ff).
8. Relative Chronology of Acts
If Festus succeeded Felix in the summer of 60 ad, Paul would reach Rome in the spring of 61 ad, and the narrative in Acts would terminate in 63 ad (Acts 28:30 ). Paul's arrest in Jerusalem 2 years before the accession of Festus (Acts 24:27 ) would fall in the spring of 58 ad. Previous to this Paul had spent 3 months in Corinth (Acts 20:3 ) and 3 years in Ephesus (Acts 20:31; compare Acts 19:10 ), which would make the beginning of the third missionary journey fall about 54 ad. There was an interval between the second and the third journeys (Acts 18:23 ), and as Paul spent 18 months at Corinth (Acts 18:11 ) the beginning of the second journey would fall about 51 ad. The Apostolic Council preceded the second journey and may be dated about 50 ad - 14 years subsequent to Paul's first visit to Jerusalem (37 ad) in the third year after his conversion in 35 ad. The first missionary journey was made after the visit of Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem with the alms from the church at Antioch (Acts 11:30; Acts 12:25 ), about the time of the death of Herod Agrippa I, and would fall between 44 ad and 50 ad. The growth of the early church in Jerusalem previous to Paul's conversion would Thus extend over a period of about 5 years from 30 ad to 35 ad.
9. Pauline Epistles
Ten of the thirteen Pauline epistles were written during a period of about ten years between Paul's arrival in Corinth and the close of his first Roman imprisonment. These epistles fall into three groups, each possessing certain distinctive characteristics; and although each reflects the difference in time and occasion of its production, they all reveal an essential continuity of thought and a similarity of style which evidences unity of authorship. The earliest group consists of the Thessalonian epistles, both of which were written from Corinth on the second missionary journey about 52 or 53 ad, while Silas (Silvanus) was still in Paul's company and shortly after Paul's visit to Athens (1 Thessalonians 1:1; 1 Thessalonians 3:1 , 1 Thessalonians 3:2 , 1 Thessalonians 3:6; 2 Thessalonians 1:1 ). The major epistles belong to the third missionary journey. 1 Corinthians was written from Ephesus about 55 ad; Galatians probably from Ephesus, either before or after 1 Corinthians, for Paul had been twice in Galatia (Galatians 4:13 ); 2 Corinthians from Macedonia about 57 ad; and Romans from Cor inth about 57 or 58 ad. The imprisonment epistles were written from Rome: Colossians, Ephesians and Philemon about 62 ad, and Philippians about 63 ad.
10. Release and Death of Paul
When Paul wrote to Philemon (Philippians 1:22 ) and to the Philippians (Philippians 2:24; compare Philippians 1:25 ), he expected a favorable issue of his trial in Rome and was looking forward to another visit to the East. Before his arrest he had planned a journey to Spain by way of Rome (Romans 15:28 ), and when he bade farewell to the Ephesian elders at Miletus (Acts 20:25 ) he must have had in mind not only the dangers of his journey to Jerusalem, but also his determination to enter another field of labor. 1 Clement 5, the Muratori Canon and the Apocryphal Acts of Peter (Zahn, Einltg. 3, I, 444 f) witness to the Spanish journey, and the Pastoral Epistles to a journey to the East and to another imprisonment in Rome. The two lines of evidence for Paul's release are independent and neither can be explained as derived merely from the statement of Paul's intention in Romans and in Philemon and Philippians. The historical situation implied in the Pastoral Epistles can be charged with artificiality only on the hypothesis that Paul was not released from his first Roman imprisonment. The data of these epistles cannot be fitted into any period of Paul's life previous to his imprisonment. But these data are embodied in just those parts of the Pastoral Epistles which are admitted to be Pauline by those who regard the epistles as containing only genuine fragments from Paul but assign the epistles in their present form to a later writer. On any hypothesis of authorship, however, the tradition which these epistles contain cannot be much later than the first quarter of the 2nd century. It is highly probable therefore that Paul was released from his first Roman imprisonment; that he visited Spain and the East; and that he was imprisoned a second time in Rome where he met his death in the closing years of Nero's reign, i.e. in 67 or 68 ad. According to early tradition Paul suffered martyrdom by beheading with the sword (Tert., De praescr. haer ., xxxvi), but there is nothing to connect his death with the persecution of the Christians in Rome by Nero in 64 ad.
Little is known of Peter beside what is recorded of him in the New Testament. The tradition of his bishopric of 20 or 25 years in Rome (compare Harnack, Gesch. d. altchr. Lit ., II; Die Chronologie , I, 243 f) accords neither with the implications of Acts and Galatians nor with Paul's silence in Rom.
11. Death of Peter
But 1 Pet was probably written from Rome (Romans 5:13; compare Euseb., HE, ii.15, 2) and the testimony to Peter's martyrdom (implied in John 21:18 f) under Nero in Rome by crucifixion (Tert., De praes. haer ., xxxvi; compare 1 Clem Romans 5:1 ) is early and probably trustworthy. Tradition also associates Peter and Paul in their Roman labors and martyrdom (Dionysius in Euseb., HE , ii.25, 8; Iren., Adv. haer ., iii.1, 2; iii.3, 1). The mention of the Vatican as the place of Peter's interment (Caius in Euseb., HE , ii.25, 6 f) may indicate a connection of his martyrdom with the Neronian persecution in 64 ad; but this is not certain. Peter's death may therefore be dated with some probability in Rome between 64 and 67 ad. His two epistles were written at some time before his death, probably the First about 64 and the Second at some time afterward and subsequent to the Epistle of Jude which it apparently uses. (The arguments against the Roman sojourn and martyrdom of Peter are stated fully by Schmiedel in the Encyclopedia Biblica , u nder the word "Simon Peter," especially col. 458ff; on the other hand compare Zahn, Einleitung. 3, II, 17ff, English translation, II, 158ff.)
12. Death of James the Just
James the Just, the brother of the Lord, was prominent in the church of Jerusalem at the time of the Apostolic Council (Acts 15:13; Galatians 2:9; compare Galatians 1:19; Galatians 2:12 ) and later when Paul was arrested he seems still to have occupied this position (Acts 21:18 ), laboring with impressive devotion for the Jewish people until his martyrdom about the year 66 ad ( Ant. , XX, ix, 1; Euseb., HE , ii.23, 3ff; HRE 3, VIII, 581; Zahn, Einltg. 3, I, 76). The Epistle of Jas contains numerous indications of its early origin a nd equally clear evidence that it was not written during the period when the questions which are discussed in the major epistles of Paul were agitating the church. It is probably the earliest book of the New Testament, written before the Apostolic Council.
13. The Synoptic Gospels, Etc.
In the decade just preceding the fall of Jerusalem, the tradition of the life and teaching of Jesus was committed to writing in the Synoptic Gospels. Early tradition dates the composition of Matthew's Gospel in the lifetime of Peter and Paul (Iren., Adv. haer ., ill.l, 1; Eusebius, HE , v.8, 2ff), and that of the Gospel of Mark either just before or after Peter's death (Clement in Euseb., HE , vi.14, 7; compare ii.15; and Irenaeus, Adv. haer ., iii.11, 1; Presbyter of Papias in Euseb., HE , iii. 39, 15; compare also 2 Peter 1:15 ). The Lucan writings - both the Gospel and Acts - probably fall also in this period, for the Gospel contains no intimation that Jesus' prophecy of the destruction of Jerusalem had been fulfilled (compare Luke 21:21; Acts 11:28 ), and the silence of Acts about the issue of Paul's trial is best explained on the hypothesis of an early date (Jerome, De vir. illustr ., vii; Harnack, Neue Untersuch. zur Apostelgesch ., 1911; compare also Luke 10:7; 1 Timothy 5:18 ). To this period belong also the Epistle of Jude and the Epistle to the He (if addressed to Jewish Christians of Palestine; but later, about 80 ad, if addressed to Jewish Christians of Rome (Zahn, Einltg. 3, II, 152)), the former being used in 2 Peter and the latter in 1 Clement.
14. Death of John
Early tradition connects John with Ephesus and mentions his continuing in life until the time of Trajan (Irenaeus, Adv. haer ., ii.22, 5 (Eusebius, HE , v.24); iii.l, 1; v.30, 3; v.33, 4; Clement in Eusebius, HE , iii.23, 5-19; Polycrates in Eusebius, HE , iii.31, 3; v.24, 3; Justin, Dialogue , lxxxi; compare Revelation 1:1 , Revelation 1:4 , Revelation 1:9; Revelation 22:8; John 21:22 , John 21:23 , John 21:14; John 19:35 ). He died probably about the end of the 1st century. There is another but less well-attested tradition of martyrdom based chiefly on the De Boor fragment of Papias (Texte u. Unters ., 1888), a Syriac Martyrology of the 4th century (Wright, Jour. of Sacred Lit ., 1865-66, VIII, 56ff, 423ff), the Codex Coislinianus 305 of Georgius Hamartolus. This tradition, it is thought, finds confirmation in Mark 10:35-40; Matthew 20:20-23 (compare Bousset, Theologische Rundschau ,. 1905, 225ff, 277ff). During the closing years of his life John wrote the Revelation, the Fourth Gospel and the three Epistles.
15. Summary of Dates
Conversion of Paul | ALIGN =RIGHT>35 | |
Death of James, son of Zebedee | ALIGN =RIGHT>44 | |
Death of Herod Agrippa I | ALIGN =RIGHT>44 | |
Famine under Claudius | ALIGN =RIGHT>44-48 | |
Epistle of James ... before | ALIGN =RIGHT>50 | |
First missionary journey | ALIGN =RIGHT>45-49 | |
Edict of Claudius | ALIGN =RIGHT>49-50 | |
