The Atlantic Coast Line
The Atlantic coast of Morocco is remarkable for its regularity; it has not a single gulf or noteworthy estuary; the capes are few and for the most part feebly marked. Southward from Cape Spartel the shore sinks rapidly till it is within a few feet of the sea-level. In the low cliff which it forms about 4Z m. from the lighthouse there is a great quarry, which from remote antiquity has yielded the hand-mills used in the Tangier district. A stretch of low marshy ground along the Tahaddart estuary - W. Muharhar and W. el-Kharrub - agrees with Scylax's Gulf of Cotes (Tissot). Eight m. farther lies Azila, the ancient Colonia Julia Constantia Zilis, with a Moorish and Jewish population of about 1200. For the next 16 m., between Azila and Laraish (Laraiche), the coast has a tolerably bold background of hills, Jebel Sarsar forming an important landmark for the latter town which, with its Phoenician, Roman and medieval remains, is historically one of the most interesting places in Morocco. A line of reddish cliffs about 300 ft. high runs south for about 10 m. from the W. Lekkus, at whose mouth the town is built; then the coast sinks till it reaches the shrine of Mulai Bu Selham on an eminence 220 ft. high. Between Mulai Bu Selham (often wrongly called " Old Mamora ") and a similar height crowned by the tomb of Sidi `Abd Allah Jelali lies the outlet of the Blue Lake (Marja Zarka), 10 or 12 m. long. Farther south, and separated from the sea by an unbroken line of rounded hills (230-260 ft.), is the much more extensive lagoon of Ras ed-Dura, which in the dry season becomes a series of marshy meres, but in the rainy season fills up and discharges into the Sebu. Eastward it is connected with the Marjat el-Gharb, fed by the W. Meda. On the south side of the outlet of the Sebu lies Mehediya (otherwise misnamed New Mamora or Mehduma) founded by `Abd el-Mumin, and named after the Muwahhadi Mandi. It was held by Spain from 1614 to 1681. Twenty miles farther is the mouth of the BU Ragrag, with Salli (Sla) on the north side, long famous for its piracies, and still one of the most fanatical places in the empire, and on the south side Rabat, with its conspicuous Hassan tower, and Sheila with its interesting ruins. Onward for 100 m. to Point Azammur and the mouth of the Um er-Rabi`a river a line of hills skirts the sea; the shore is for the most part low, and, with the exception of capes at Fedala (a small village, originally a port, partly rebuilt by Mulai Isma'il, and completed by Mahommed XVII., who opened it to Europeans between 1760 and 1773) and Dar el-Baida or Casablanca, it runs in a straight line west-south-west. Azammur (Berber for " The Wild Olives," viz. of the Sheikh Bu Shaib) - once the frontier town of the kingdom of Fez - stands on an eminence about 12 m. from the sea on the south side of the Urn er-Rabi`a, here some 150 ft. wide, deep and red, with an obstructing bar. The bay of Mazagan, a few miles to the south, curves westward with a boldness of sweep unusual on this coast. About 8 m. to the south, and less than 1 m. inland, lie the extensive ruins of Tit, a town which proved a thorn in the side of the Portuguese of Mazagan till they destroyed it. At Cape Blanco (so called from its white cliffs) the coast, which bulged out at Cape Mazagan, again bends south to resume much the same general direction for 55 m. to Cape Cantin. On this stretch the only point of interest is the site of the vanished Walidiya, formerly El-Ghait, with an excellent harbour, formed by an extensive lagoon, which by a little dredging would become the safest shipping station on the whole Morocco seaboard. About 18 m. farther lies Saffi (Asfi), the most picturesque spot on the west coast, with the high walls and quare towers of its Portuguese fortifications shown to advantage by the ruggedness of the site. Sixty miles farther south lies Mogador, beyond which the coast becomes more and more inaccessible and dangerous in winter, being known to navigators as the " Iron Coast." From Cape Sim (Ras Tagriwalt),. 10 m. south of Mogador, the direction is due south to Cape Ghir (Ighir Ufrani), the termination of Jebel Ida u Tanan, a spur of the Atlas. Beyond this headland lies Agadir (Agadir Ighir), the Santa Cruz Mayor or Santa Cruz de Berberia of the Spaniards, formerly known as the Gate of the Sudan. 1 It is a little town with white battlements three-quarters of a mile in circumference, on a steep eminence 600 ft. high. In the 16th century it was seized by the Portuguese; but in 1536 it was captured by Mulai Ahmad, one of the founders of the Sa'adi dynasty. Some 60 m. farther south, at the mouth of a river known by the same name, is the roadstead of Massa, with a mosque popularly reputed the scene of Jonah's restoration to terra firma. This port 2 was regularly visited by the Genoese traders in the 16th century, who exported skins, gum, wax, gold and indigo. Another 50 m. farther south lies Ifni, a landing-place easily recognizable by the shrine of Sidi Worzek, a few miles to the Character of the Interior. - The backbone of the country is the Great Atlas (Daren of the Berbers), for which see Atlas. The principal rivers take their rise in the Atlas Mountains, and the headwaters of the Mulwiya, the Sebu, the Um er-Rabi`a, the Dra`a and the Ziz all rise between 32° 20' and 32° 30' N., and between 3° 30' and 5° W. The Mulwiya (Mulucha and Malva of Pliny, &c.) is the river which the French have long wished to make the western boundary of Algeria. Its course is largely unexplored save by native French officials. About 34 20' N. General Colvile found 'it some zoo yds. wide but quite 8° Scale, r:7,000,000 English Miles 20 Railways.... «w. r Principal Routes..... - ? Ancient Sites D 6° Aa?;? 5 T C.Spartki i ? 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???.. ?? C??, ? y,?I'? " ~?-?..- n ? .s,' : U :Taskalemin--.'i'?i, ??"- ???'P ° -A3har -r?; " - %Maderj l 11! B r= c Tabetbala aMohammed 3 28 Longitude West 6° of Greenwich south of which is the Cape Non 3 of the Portuguese. The better known Cape Nan lies 5 or 6 m. north of the W. Nun, at the mouth of which is Assaka, a port which the sultan of Morocco opened to foreign trade in 1882, but closed after six months. From Assaka to the mouth of the Dra`a the country continues broken and fertile, but farther south it is flatter and more sandy, so that with the Dra`a the Sahara may be said to begin.
1 This must not be confounded with Santa Cruz de Mar Pequena, a post established in 1476 somewhere on this coast by Herrera, lord of the Canary Islands. After obtaining permission to reoccupy the post in 1861, the Spanish government was unable to identify it, though in all probability the original site was the lagoon known as Puerto Cansado, much farther south. But this is nowtoo remote a spot to be worth colonizing, hence the desire to substitute some other. Ifni, on old maps Gueder, was chosen (1878), there being some evidence to show that it was possibly the true site of the ancient fort.
See Valentin Ferdinand, Beschreibung West Afrikas (Mem. of the Acad. of Munich, 3rd Class, pt. viii.).
No, Non, Nor, Naum, Nao, are among the various readings. It was another Cape Non to the south of Cape Bojador which seems to have given rise to the proverb, Quem pasar o cabo de Nao ou tornara ou nao. See Bol. de la Soc. Geogr. (Madrid, 1880), p. 316.
shallow; about 25 m. east of its source, where it is crossed by the route to Ziz, it is already a powerful stream with a deep bed cut in the granite rock, and shortly afterwards it is joined by the W. Sgimmel, a still larger affluent (Rohlfs). Of the lesser streams which flow into the Mediterranean it is enough to mention the W. Martil or Martin (otherwise W. Bu Sfiha, W. Ras, W. Mejeksa), which falls into the Bay of Tetuan, and is identified with the Tamuda of Pliny and Thaluda of Ptolemy.
On the Atlantic seaboard there are a number of comparatively small streams north of the Sethi, the chief of which is the winding W. Lekkus, with several tributaries. The Sebu (the Subur magnificus et navigabilis of Pliny) may be compared to the Thames in length and width, though not in steadiness and depth of current. At Meshra'at el-Ksiri, about 70 m. from its mouth, it is about ro ft. deep in the month of May and more than 460 ft. wide; and, though its banks are 21 ft. high, extensive inundations occur. The tide ascends as far as El-Kantara, 15 m. above Ma`mora, and steam barges with a small draught of water could make their way to the ford just mentioned, and possibly even as far as Fez. Affluents of the Sebu are W. Mikkes and W. Redem (90 m. long). The swift and muddy current of W? Beht usually loses itself in a swamp before it reaches the main stream. The Bu Ragrag, which debouches between Rabat and Salli, is about the same length as the Beht, but of much more importance. It and the Urn er-Rabi`a (mother of grass), although their mouths are widely separated, drain the northern slopes of the central Atlas. The impetuous Uin erRabi`a, with a rocky bed and many rapids, is perhaps as large as the Sebu. W. el-Abiad, W. Akhdar and W. Tessaut are the principal affluents. This last is separated by about io m. only from the valley of the Tansift, the river which flows to the north of the city of Marrakesh; and by the W. Nefis, the Asif el-Mal (Asif is Berber for river), the W. Usbi, and other smaller tributaries, receives the waters of about 180 m. of the Atlas range.
The valley between_the Atlas and the Anti-Atlas is traversed by the W, ‘. Sus, whose ever-flowing stream is sufficient to turn the whole district into a garden. The Massa or W. al-Ghas, though its headwaters drain only one or two of the lesser valleys at the south-west end of the Anti-Atlas, is "about so yds. from bank to bank at the mouth, with a depth at high water and in the proper channel of something over a fathom." Farther south is the Assaka, known to European geographers as the W. Nun; and finally the W. Dra`a is reached, which in length exceeds all the rivers of Morocco, but, except in spring, when the snows are melting in the highlands, remains throughout its lower reaches a dry sandy channel. In the upper valleys however innumerable streams from the south side of the main chain of the Atlas, the W. Dades from the east, and the Asif Marghen, W. el-Molah, or Warzazet from the west, flow through populous and fertile valleys, and uniting to form the Dra`a cut their way southward through a gorge in the Jebel Soghar, which, as the name implies, is a lower range running parallel to the Atlas proper. For the next 130 m. the stream holds S.S.E., drained at every step by the irrigation canals which turn this region into a green oasis, till at last its dwindling current bends westward to the sebkha (salt marsh) of Debaya. For a few weeks once a year the thaw-floods fill this shallow but extensive basin and rush onwards to the Atlantic; but in summer it dries up, and, like the bed of the river for some distance below, is covered with flourishing crops. From the south of the Atlas still farther east descend other streams, the W. Ziz (with its tributaries the W. Todgha and W. Gheris), the W. Ghir, the W. Kenatsa, &c., which, after watering the oases of Medghara, Tafilalt (Sajilmasa), Kenatsa, &c., lose themselves in the sands of the Sahara.
History
The prehistoric antiquities of Morocco are of considerable interest. In the cave at Cape Spartel Tissot found regularly shaped arrow-heads, and in the north of the country he met with dolmens, barrows and cromlechs, just as in Algeria or Tunisia. The dolmens usually form a trapezium, and the body seems to have been buried with the knees drawn up to the chin. At M`zorah, a quaint little village of widelyscattered houses built of rough blocks of yellow soft sandstone, about 8 or 10 m. south-east from Azila, stands a group of megalithic monuments of some interest. They have been visited and described by many travellers, but Watson's account is the most detailed. Round the base of a mound (15 ft. high) of yellow sandstone lies a circle of sixty-seven large stones, one of which (at the west side) is more than 20 ft. high. In the vicinity are several other groups, some of still larger blocks. Roman roads (see Roman Africa) seem to have run from Tangier southwards to the neighbourhood of Mequinez (Miknasa), and from Azila to the south of Rabat; and Roman sites are in several instances marked by considerable remains of masonry. At Kasar Fara`on (Pharaoh's Castle), on the western slope of J. Zarhon, are the ruins of Volubilis. The enceinte, constructed of large stones and flanked by round towers, is 12,000 ft. in extent. Four gates are still recognizable, and a triumphal arch erected in A.D. 216 in honour of Caracalla and Julia Domna. The stones of this site have been used for Mequinez Miknas. Banasa (Colonia Aelia, originally Valentia) is identified with the ruins of Sidi Ali Bu Jenun, and Thamusida with those of Sidi Ali b. Hamed. At Shammish, up the river from Laraish, the city of Lixus (Trinx of Strabo) has splendid specimens of Punic and Roman stonework, and the similar remains on the headland of Mulai BO. Selham probably belong to the Mudelacha of Polybius. Of early Moorish architecture good examples are comparatively few and badly preserved. Besides those in Fas, Miknas, and Marrakesh, it is sufficient to mention the mausoleum of the Beni-Marin (13th to 16th centuries) at Shella, which, with the adjoining mosque, is roofless and ruined, but possesses a number of funeral inscriptions.
The earliest records touching on Morocco are those of Hanno's Periplus, which mentions that Carthaginian colonies were planted along the coast. The savage and inhospitable tribes with whom they came in contact included cave-dwellers; but megalithic remains point to a yet earlier race. It is not till the last century B.C. that Moroccan Berbers are found supplying troops to Pompey or Sertorius, and later, under Augustus, becoming themselves incorporated in the Roman province of Mauretania (and also Roman Africa). But the Roman province reached only to the Bu Ragrag, on which Sala, now Salli, was its outpost; Volubilis, near Mequinez, being its principal, if not its only, inland city. In the fifth century A.D. the country became subject to the Vandals and, about 618, to the Goths.
1 Gentil, in La Geographie, No. 3 (1908), describes the Siroua region, which, N.N.W. of Tikirt, connects the Anti Atlas and the High Atlas. The Siroua volcano compares with the finest volcanoes of Europe.
The coming of the Arabs under 'Oqba ('Okba) in 682 was of far greater moment, though it was not till twenty years later that his successor, Musa ibn Nosair, undertook a successful expedition as far as Tafilalt and the Dra`a. The force of ten thousand Arabs and Egyptians with whom Tariq (Tarik) ibn Zaid held the Tangier district in 710 was trebled by the enrolment of the Berbers, who enabled him next year to invade Spain, burning his boats behind him (see Caliphate, § C. Abbasids). But the Moroccan Berbers chafed beneath the Arab rule, and in 739 successfully revolted, setting up their first independent ruler, Maisara. Their kinsmen in Spain followed suit with equal success, and though subdued for a time, they retained their independence in certain parts till the 11th century, when, as masters of Granada, they subjugated their implacable foes, the Arabs; and finally, under the Murabti and Muwahhadi dynasties, conquered all Mahommedan Spain.
The recorded history of the Moorish Empire commences with the settlement near the Roman ruins of Volubilis in A.D. 788 of Idris the elder (Idris b. Abdallah), one of the fugitive Dynasties. descendants of Mahomet during the struggles be tween rival claimants of the caliphate. Islam had then been established in these parts for eighty years, but Idris and his son, Idris II., the builder of Fez, extended its influence, uniting the Berbers into a kingdom. Their line controlled a limited portion of northern Morocco for nearly two centuries, in part supplanted by the Miknasa in 922, until displaced by the Maghrawa in 988. These two dynasties were exterminated in 1061 by Yusef I. (bin Tashfin), founder of the Murabti dynasty of Berbers (Almoravides), who added the remainder of Morocco, most of Spain and Portugal, and Tlemcen. Their principal existing monument is the city of Marrakesh. In 1149 the Murabti power was overthrown by another religious leader, `Abd el Mumin at the head of the Muwahhadi - i.e. " Unitarian " - horde (Almohades), under whom the Moorish Empire reached its zenith at the close of the 12th century. It then included, in addition to the Murabti realm, what now are Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli, extending to the frontier of Egypt, which they were prevented from occupying by the rise of Saladin. Before the middle of the 13th century they had been driven out of Spain, and had lost all but what is now known as Morocco, whence, between 1217 and 1269, they were ousted by the Beni Malin (Marinides). To them we owe the Giralda, Hasan and Kutubiya towers of Seville, Rabat and Marrakesh respectively, the Torre de Oro at Seville, Gibraltar Castle, and the towns of Rabat and Al kasar. It was under their rule that Francis of Assisi despatched to Morocco the first Christian missionaries of modern times. (See Almoravides and Almohades.) The new dynasty differed from the two which had preceded it in being frankly part of a Berber tribe, the Zenata, who carved out a kingdom for themselves. Having assisted the Murabtis and Muwahhadis respectively at the b a ttles of El Arcos 11 1213-1524. ( 95) and Las Navas (1212), the defection of their amir on that occasion offered an opportunity for Abd-el-Halk, the son of their general, to attempt the overthrow of the reigning house. At first the Beni Mann professed allegiance to Tunis, where the Hafsis, a branch of the Muwahhadis, had thrown off the Moorish yoke and secured acknowledgement in northern Morocco and parts of Spain. But they were soon in a position to proclaim complete independence, and by the time that Abu Bakr, the third son of Abd-el-Hakk to succeed him, died, in 1258, they held sway over all that is now known as Morocco, and 1269 saw the death of the last Muwalibadi prince.
On the death of Abu Bakr there succeeded Yakub II., one of the few amirs of Morocco who have left a name for just administration and for philanthropic undertakings. Although of strict religious habits, he displayed no bigotry, studying philosophy, and entering into friendly intercourse with Europeans, whom he encouraged to trade with Salli. In 1261, 1275 and 1277-1279, he undertook successful expeditions to Spain, and again in 1284, this time, in alliance with Alphonso of Leon, against his rebel son Sancho. But Alphonso dying during the struggle, Yakub found himself master of his country, and Sancho had to acknowledge his suzerainty. All Mahommedans within his realm were freed from all taxes, and all the Arabic manuscripts of the country - thirteen loads - were despatched to the college Yakub had built in Fez.
But Yakub did not live to reap the benefits of his conquest, which were enjoyed by his son, Yusef IV. (1286), who was courted by his father's old foes, entering into amicable relations with Tunis, Egypt, Arabia and the neighbouring European states. With the contemporaneous Beni Zeiyan dynasty of Tlemcen, sworn foes of his house, however, he was still at war when stabbed (1307) in the new town of Tlemcen, which he had built while conducting a siege of the old town. A second siege was begun in 1335, and Tlemcen fell in 1337 to the fourth ruler of the dynasty, Ali V., Abu `1 Hasan, better known as " The Black Sultan." Unsuccessful in his invasion of Spain and Tunisia, Ali had eventually to abdicate in 1351 in favour of his rebel son, the famous " Abu Ainan," Faris I., who during a short reign recovered Algeria and Tunisia.
The Beni Mann were soon driven back, till a few years later Tlemcen alone remained to them, and this they held only till 1 359 (see Tlemc C En). Thereafter their empire became habitually divided between rival claimants, and the Portuguese began to obtain footholds on the coast, Ceuta being lost to them in 1415, Al Kasar in 1458, and Azila and Tangier in 1471.
On the failure of the Beni Mann the amirate was seized by Sa`id III., " El Wallas," head of another branch, founder of the short-lived Wattasi dynasty. His reign is memor- wattasi able as that in which the " Catholic Princes " Dynasty, expelled his co-religionists from Spain, the last 1471-1548. amir of Granada and many others taking refuge in Morocco, where in 1492 they built for themselves Tetuan. His son, Mahomet VIII., surnamed " the Portuguese," because so long a prisoner of that people, had to suffer the loss to Portugal of practically all his Atlantic ports but Salli-Rabat, and of Person de Velez to Spain, which had a few years previously captured Melilla. Although two more reigns carried the dynasty down to 1550, it has barely left its mark upon the country. From the beginning of the new century a rising power had been making itself felt in the south, over which the Wattasis never held sway.
The family of sharifs or " nobles " - that is, descendants of Mahomet - popularly known as the Sa`adi or Hasani (Hosaini), settled in the Dra`a district, but originally came from Sa'adi Yanboa, near Medina. Their opportune religious Dynasty, leadership rallied the disjointed members of the 1524-1668. empire for a jehad against the Portuguese, but ultimately, on the death of Mahomet VIII., when in possession of the kingdom of Marrakesh, the sharifs defeated his successor and arranged a formal division of the country at the Urn er-Rabi'a. At the head of the movement were then the two sons of the sharif who had started it, Ahmed III. and Mahomet IX., between whom rivalry broke out, resulting in the success of the latter, who by 1550 found himself the master of the whole empire on carrying off the last Wattasi amir Mahomet and espousing his daughter.
On the assassination of Mahomet IX. in 1557, the succession passed by a previous agreement to his brother's son, `Abd-Allah IV., who secured himself against the possible rivalry of his brothers by putting ten of the twelve to death. One of the survivors, however, Abd-el-Malek I., deposed Abd-Allah's son, Mahomet XI., whose appeal to Sebastian of Portugal for assistance, brought about the celebrated " battle of the three kings," in which they all perished in 1578 near Al Kasar. This opened the way to the most famous of his line, Ahmed IV., Ed-Dhahebi, or " the Golden," who proclaimed himself caliph, the last (nominal) Abbasid holder of that office having been superseded by the Turks on their conquest of Egypt in 1517. He entered into friendly relations with Queen Elizabeth and other European potentates, and the oases of That, &c., were added to his dominions, which embraced also Timbuktu, whence came gold and tobacco. Ahmed fell a victim of the plague in 1603, and the The Arab Invasion, 682-710. succession was disputed by three of his sons. In 1608 one of them, Zidan, became supreme and reigned twenty years. To subdue rebellions Zidan twice obtained the assistance of English troops from Charles I., and, like his father, employed large numbers of European artificers in the various palaces he built or completed. The two sons who succeeded him had both become drunkards from intercourse with these foreigners, but a third, Mahomet XIII., called from prison to reign in 1636, proved himself a wise and beneficent ruler. But his friendship for Europeans displeased the more fanatical among his subjects, and after a futile attempt on the part of a central Moroccan " saint " of great reputation to oust him, and the " Christians " on the coast as well, another family of sharifs was invited from Tafilalt to undertake the task, and by 1649 they were masters of Fez.
Before tracing the history of the Filali dynasty, which still holds its own, it will be convenient to refer briefly to the relations which subsisted then (17th century) and for many years afterwards, apart from wars with Spain and Portugal, between the Moors and Europeans. From the early part of the 13th century there are records of Christian mercenaries and others in the Moorish service, while intermittent trading expeditions had already brought the principal European ports of the Mediterranean into touch with Morocco. The settlement of European traders in Moorish ports does not appear to have commenced till later; but it soon became an important factor, for the Moors have always appreciated the advantages of foreign commerce, and thus the way was opened up for diplomatic intercourse and treaty privileges. Even while their rovers were scouring the seas and making slaves of the foreigners captured, foreign merchants were encouraged to trade among them under guarantees -and safe-conducts. Thus originated all the rights enjoyed by foreigners in Morocco to-day, as subsequently confirmed by treaties. France was the first to appoint a consul to Morocco, in 1577, Great Britain only doing so a century later. For centuries the treatment of foreign envoys in Morocco was most humiliating, the presents they brought being regarded in the light of tribute. It was not till the year 1900 that the custom was abolished of mounted sultans under umbrellas receiving ambassadors on foot and bareheaded.
While, from the European point of view, the pirates of the Barbary coast were a bloodthirsty set of robbers, in no way to be distinguished from the sweepings of Western c i v i l i zat i on who scoured the seas farther east, from R the standpoint of the Moors they were the pious religious warriors for the faith, who had volunteered to punish the Nazarenes for rejecting Mahomet, and it is difficult to realize the honour in which their memory is held save by comparison with that of the Crusaders, in which the positions were exactly reversed. The Moorish rovers approached as nearly to an organized navy as anything the country ever possessed, and at times they were fitted out by the state, to whom their prizes therefore belonged. They made descents on the opposite coasts, even as far as Devon and Cornwall, carrying off the population of whole hamlets.
Salli, Ma`mora (Mehediya), Laraish, Tangier, Ceuta, Tetuan, and Badis were their principal rendezvous in Morocco, and their vessels, an assortment of almost every known build and rig of the day, varied greatly in numbers and size. It is probable, however, that contemporary writers greatly over-estimated their importance. They appear to have flourished chiefly throughout the ,6th, 17th and ,8th centuries, and to have attained the zenith of their power during the latter part of the 17th century. A great impetus was given to their raids by the expulsion of the Moors from Spain in 1610, and their operations were facilitated later by the recovery of most of the Moorish ports from foreign hands. The varying influence of the different European states could be gauged at first by the prices they were compelled to pay to ransom their captive subjects, and later by the annual tribute which they were willing to present to protect their vessels. Some countries continued the payment well into the 19th century, although the slavery of Christians in Morocco had been abolished by treaty in 1814.
During the time that piracy flourished hundreds of thousands of foreigners suffered captivity, torture and death in Morocco rather than abjure their faith, the one condition on which a measure of freedom within Morocco was offered to them. The horrors of that time were keenly felt in Christendom, and collections were constantly made at church doors for the ransom of Moorish captives. Frequent expeditions for that purpose were undertaken by members of religious brotherhoods, not a few of whom themselves became martyrs. The lot of the European slave was infinitely worse than that of the negro who indifferently embraced Islam, and was at once admitted to equality in all points save freedom. They were principally employed on public works or in galleys under the task-master's lash, both men and women being subjected to every indignity.
The record of the Filali dynasty may now be considered. The first of this line proclaimed in Fez was Mahomet XIV., but the first of European fame was his brother, Rashid II., " The Great Tafilalta," as he was styled - .1 by the English, who then occupied Tangier, sultan from 1664 to 1672. With him opened a terrible epoch of bloodshed and cruelty, only once revived since - during the short reign of El Yazid (1790-1792) - the horrors of which for both natives and Europeans, are often indescribable. It reached its climax under his brother Isma'il. A man of wonderful vitality, his reign lasted 55 years (1672-1727), during which his fierce grasp never relaxed. Many hundreds of sons and countless daughters were born to him in a harem rivalling that of Solomon, for which he even asked a daughter of Louis XIV. Having, as he supposed, driven the English from Tangier, he laid unsuccessful siege to Ceuta for 26 years, but otherwise his military measures were confined to subduing internal enemies, in which he was supported by his faithful black troops, the Bokharis, and also by a foreign legion of renegades.
For 30 years after Isma'il's death one son after another was set up by the Bokharis, seven succeeding - some of them more than once - till one, Abd-Allah V., who partook of his father's bloodthirsty nature, ended his sixth turn of power in 1757. Then, at last, this dynasty provided a beneficent sovereign in the person of his son, Mahomet XVI., during whose reign of 33 years the land prospered. By him Mogador was built and Mazagan, the last hold of the Portuguese, recovered. He was followed by the wretch Yazid, his son by an English or Irish woman, whose reign was fortunately cut short while contending with four rival brothers, two of whom in turn succeeded him, the second, Sulaiman II., proving as wise a ruler as his father. Under his reign (1795-1822) piracy vas abolished, but the policy, maintained till the end of the century, of having as little as possible to do with foreigners was initiated.
By Sulaiman's direction the imperial umbrella passed to his nephew, Abd-er-Rahman II., on whom he could rely to maintain his policy. Although disposed to promote foreign trade, he made a futile attempt in 1828 to revive piracy, which the Austrians frustrated by reprisals next year. Following this was the war of 1830 with France over the partition of Algeria, as a result of which the Moors renounced all claim to Tlemcen and entered into agreements the infraction of which' led to a second war between the two in 1844, during which Tangier and Mogador were bombarded. A bombardment of Salli in 1851 secured for the French the settlement of various claims, and when Abd-er-Rahman died, in 1859, the Spaniards were threatening Tetuan.
War being declared, the Spaniards marched on the town, which they captured after two months, and held till peace was signed six months later on their own terms. The vanquished sultan, Mahomet XVII., reigned till his death in 1873, when his son, El Hasan III., succeeded, having the usual fight to secure the supremacy. In comparison with his predecessors El Hasan was mild and gentle, too much so to maintain continual peace among the more turbulent of his subjects. From early in the century Sus had practically maintained independence, but in 1882 was reduced to submission, as also were subsequently the other great Berber centres, one by one, till the land had rest. Fighting between the Rifians and Spaniards in 1894 having involved the sultan in the payment of some £650,000 indemnity, he was on his way to recover this from the culprits when he died in camp and was interred at Rabat.
El-Hasan's death was kept secret till the coffin reached its destination, so that a peaceful proclamation was secured for `Abd-el-`Aziz IV., his son by a Circassian slave who The Reign possessed great influence over him. His trusted of tziz ' chamberlain, Si Ahmed ben Musa became Wazir °Aziz IV. > > regent, and put down all opposition, ruling with a firm, wise hand till 1900, when he died just as his ward attained his majority. Drastic changes thereon took place, and a new set of ministers came into power. The young sultan now showed himself desirous of acquiring and practising foreign arts and of introducing foreign reforms. Under his mother's advice he sought especially the friendship and advice of Great Britain, on whose disinterested friendship he believed he could rely. But lack of training and experience frustrated his praiseworthy efforts, and he became the prey of schemers and speculators, who pandered to his worst traits and squandered his treasure.
This turn of affairs aroused the fanaticism of his people, and in 1902 the Berber tribes of the Algerian frontier rose in rebellion under Jelali Zarhoni, nicknamed " Bu Hamara," who claimed to be fighting on behalf of the sultan's brother Mahomet, already imprisoned in Mequinez for revolt.' Unable to subdue the rebellion, which did not, however, affect the rest of the empire, `Abd-el-`Aziz borrowed money from France to reorganize his army, but failed to effect his purpose. Meanwhile a local sharif, Mulai Ahmed er-Raisuli, made himself master of the district round Tangier, holding even foreigners to ransom, and creating a false impression abroad as to the general state of the empire.
The end appeared near when by a declaration, signed in London on the 8th of April 1904, Great Britain, in return for concessions in Egypt, agreed not to interfere with French action in Morocco. In this declaration, one of the series of arrangements marking the establishment of the entente cordiale, France declared that she had no intention of changing the political status of Morocco. She designed, however, a system of " pacific penetration," and administrative, economic, financial and military reforms - reforms which the Moorish court did not desire. By a separate convention with Spain in October 1904 the interests of that country were safeguarded, and it seemed that the Anglo-French agreement had the approval of all the powers. Some weeks before its conclusion its terms had been communicated to Germany, and four days after its signature Count Billow had stated in the Reichstag that there was no ground to apprehend that German interests (" essentially economic ") in Morocco would be disregarded. During the remaining months of 1904, however, and in the opening months of 1905, the international situation was changed. Germany had viewed with concern the increased influence of France in Europe, but remained quiescent tintil after the reverses to the Russian arms in Manchuria, when it was judged in Berlin that the time had arrived for Germany to become the arbiter of European policy; and the means to demonstrate her position were found in the Moroccan question. After having turned a deaf ear to the demands of the PanGermanic party for the " vindication " of German rights in Morocco, after in fact nearly a year of acquiescence in the predominant position of France in that country 2 the German ' Mulai Mahomet, eldest son of El Hasan and a generally popular prince, was released from prison by `Abd-el-`Aziz early in 1908 and placed in command of his army. On the defeat of `Aziz by Mulai Hafid, Mahomet contemplated seizing the throne. He was, however, imprisoned by Hafid in the palace at Fez, where he was reported to have died, in mysterious circumstances, in June 1909.
2 Shown inter alia by the landing of 500 Algerian troops at Tangier (a step taken to secure the release of Ion Perdicaris and his stepson, captives of Raisuli), and of a detachment at Rabat.
by France, and at the suggestion of Germany issued The invitations to the powers to meet his representatives Airas Confelgecrence. and advise him concerning the reforms needed.
The French foreign minister, M. Delcasse, held that there was no need for a conference, but Prince Billow used menacing language and after a period of much stress M. Delcasse resigned (June, 1905), the French government thereupon agreeing to the holding of a conference. So far the German policy had triumphed; the conference met at Algeciras on the 16th of January 1906 and engaged in the delicate task of reconciling French claims for predominance with the German demand of equality for all. The British delegates gave firm support to their French colleagues, while Austria proved " a brilliant second " to Germany. With great difficulty a scheme of reforms was elaborated, Germany having previously acknowledged the privileged position of France along the Moroccan-Algerian frontier. The general act embodying the resolutions of the conference was signed on the 7th of April; it was accepted by the sultan on the 18th of June, and the ratifications of the act by the other powers were deposited at the Spanish Foreign Office on the 31st of December 1906. The act provided for a Moorish police force from 2000 to 2500 strong, distributed among the eight open ports of Morocco, to be commanded by Moorish kaids, assisted by French and Spanish instructors and officers, with a Swiss inspector-general - the arrangement to continue for five years. The act provided also for the institution of a state bank (see supra § Finance). Other provisions dealt with (a) the acquisition of land round the ports by foreigners, and the consequent payment by them of the regulated or tertib taxes; (b) the more efficient control of the customs administration, first by an annual assessment of the average values of all imports as a basis for the tariff during the following year, and, secondly, by a strict supervision of the administration itself; and (c) the authority of the state over the public services and public works, tenders for which were to be adjudicated impartially without reference to the nationality of the bidder.
Throughout 1906 the country was in a disturbed condition, and while a Franco-Spanish demonstration off Tangier succeeded in obtaining the removal of Raisuli from the governor government now complained of being ignored in the AngloFrench arrangement and proceeded to extend its patronage to `Abd-el-`Aziz. On the 31st of March 1905 the German emperor landed at Tangier and had conferences with the sultan's representatives. The emperor was reported to have declared that he had come to enforce the sovereignty of the sultan, the integrity of Morocco, and the equality of commercial and economic interests. The effect of this intervention was soon apparent. The sultan rejected the scheme of reforms proposed ship of the town, various outrages occurred (includ- France upies ing the murder of a Frenchman in the suburbs of utda.
Tangier) for which no satisfaction could be obtained.
At length the murder of Dr. Emile Mauchamp at Marrakesh on the 19th of March 1907 determined the French to take prompt. action, and Ujda was occupied (March 29) by Algerian troops, the French government determining to hold the town until satisfaction had been given to their demands. This satisfaction `Abd-el-`Aziz promised in May, and some progress was made towards carrying out the Algeciras programme, the state bank being organized in July 1907. Meantime the weakness of the sultan's rule was illustrated in many quarters: near Tangier by the continued activity of Raisuli, that chieftain securing in June another European captive - Sir Harry Maclean, 3 who after over seven months' detention had to be ransomed by the British government for £20,000.
3 Kaid Sir Harry Maclean (b. 1848) after serving in the British army became instructor to the Moorish army, which he accompanied in several expeditions. He was also colonel of the sultan's bodyguard. For services rendered to the British government he was made a C.M.G. in 1898 and a K.C.M.G. in 1901. On the occasion of his capture he had gone, as he thought, to receive the submission of Raisuli, and had with him one or two attendants only. The sum paid for his ransom was subsequently refunded - as to 15,00a by Raisuli himself and the remainder by Mulai Hafid.
At Casablanca at this time works were in progress, with the sanction of the sultan, for improving the harbour. The works were beyond the ramparts, close to the Moslem cemetery; and the neighbouring tribesmen (the Shawia) were excited by reports that the cemetery had been desecrated. On the 30th of July they attacked the European labourers and killed nine of them (three French, three Spaniards, and three Italians), afterwards entering the town and raiding the Jewish quarter. Refugees fled by boat to Tangier with news of the massacre. The French government decided to occupy Casablanca, and a strong naval and military force was sent thither. Before the arrival of the troops the commander of the cruiser " Galilee " landed a party (Aug. 5) to guard the French consulate. The passage of the detachment was opposed, whereupon the " Galilee," aided by the " Du Chayla " bombarded the town. Casablanca was at the, same time entered by the tribesmen, who began a general Casablanca. pillage. On the 7th the French troops arrived and were landed, and further fighting took place. Before order was restored nearly every inhabitant had been killed or wounded or had fled; the dead alone numbered thousands. The European colony was, however, saved. Though masters of the town, the French found the Shawia tribes still full of fight, and, first under General Drude and afterwards (Jan. 1 9 08) under General Amade, the French proceeded to the reduction of the .Shawia country. At one time the expeditionary force numbered 15,000 men.' By June 1908 the district was quiet and thereafter the strength of the force was gradually reduced.2 The action of France at Casablanca aroused the fanaticism of the tribes of Tafilalt and those dwelling near the Algerian border. In November 1907 the Beni Snassen crossed the frontier and were not reduced to submission until after hard fighting. Another outbreak occurred in April 1908, when a French column in the Guir district, west of Figig was surprised, and had difficulty in beating back the enemy. In that and a subsequent engagement, which resulted in the dispersal of the foe in May, the French casualties were over 200. French and Moorish commissioners were then appointed to preserve order along the frontier.
While thus engaged on the eastern frontier and on the Atlantic coast of Morocco France had given financial and moral support to 'Abd-el-'Aziz, whose position was threatened Fall of by his brother Mulai Hafid. On the 16th of August 'Abd-el- `Aziz. 1907, within a fortnight of the bombardment of Casablanca, the ulema of Marrakesh had declared `Abd-el-`Aziz deposed and Hafid sultan; and from September onwards the tribes round Casablanca opposing the French were supported by troops sent from Marrakesh. Aziz having been furnished with money by the state bank, he was enabled to reach the seaport of Rabat at the head of his army in September 1907. There he was visited by the French minister and appeared willing to grant all the demands of France in return for help against his brother. A loan was forthcoming but no military assistance save that some of `Abd-el-`Aziz's troops were taken by a French warship to Mazagan. While desultory fighting between the supporters of the rival brothers was proceeding Hafid was proclaimed sultan at Fez on the 4th of January 1908; Hafid now sought support from France, Germany, and other powers, and moving from Marrakesh passed the French 1 A Spanish force of 600 men was also sent to Casablanca. Throughout the crisis Spain, with some misgiving, co-operated in the actions of France.
2 In September 1908 the German consul at Casablanca gave safe-conduct to six deserters from the Foreign Legion, of whom three were Germans. On the way to embark for Hamburg, and while under guard from the German consulate, all six deserters were forcibly arrested by a French patrol. The matter created great excitement both in Germany and France, chiefly from the demand of the German government that France should express regret for the action of its agents before the facts were fully established. A way of escape was found in the formula " the two governments, regretting the events which occurred at Casablanca, ... refer the matter to arbitration ... and agree to express regret ... according to the judgment of the court." The case then went to The Hague Court of Arbitration, which gave its decision in May 1909, substantially in favour of France. In July the French government pardoned the deserters.
lines in the Shawia country, entered Mequinez in May and Fez in June 1908. At length `Abd-el-`Aziz made an effort to reassert his authority and with a force numbering 4000 he left Rabat in July for Marrakesh. He reached the neighbourhood of that city on the 2nd of August, having received the adhesion of numerous tribes, including the Shawia. On the 19th he started for the final march on Marrakesh. He appears to have been betrayed, for hardly had his force started when it was assailed on all sides, whereupon the tribesmen deserted in a body and the " regulars " ran away. The day was irretrievably lost and `Abd-el-`Aziz sought safety in flight. On the 22nd he arrived at Settat in the Shawia country, and within the French lines, with only a handful of followers. For a short time he talked of continuing the struggle, but ended by accepting a pension from his brother Hafid and was assigned a residence in Tangier. That town, the last in Morocco to acknowledge Hafid, did so on the 23rd of August; the change of sultans being accomplished without any disturbance of public order.
Germany was anxious for the immediate recognition of Hafid and caused some perturbation in France by a circular to the powers to that effect dated the 2nd of September; Mulai Nafld the French and Spanish governments replied by Sultan. proposals for guarantees that Hafid would respect the Act of Algeciras. This course received general assent and Hafid having given the guarantees demanded he was formally recognized as sultan at the beginning of 1909. His relations with Europe were made easier by the conclusion, in February 1909, of a Franco-German agreement designed to avoid all cause of misunderstanding between those powers in Morocco. Germany put on record that her interests in the sultanate were " only economic," and France agreeing to " safeguard economic equality " Germany undertook not to impede the political interests of France in the country.
The weakness of the central government was exemplified by the inability of Mulai Hafid to control the Rif tribesmen, who in July 1909 killed a number of European labourers in the neighbourhood of the Spanish fortress of Melilla (q.v.). Spain sent an army of 50,000 men to vindicate its authority. After a severe campaign the Ruffians were reduced to submission (Nov. 1909). Though powerless in the Rif, Mulai Hafid's army succeeded in defeating Bu Hamara's force and in capturing (Aug. 1909) that pretender, otherwise known as el Roghi.3 Bu Hamara and many of his followers were taken to Fez. The tortures inflicted upon them evoked strong protests from the European powers. In 1910 Mulai Hafid obtained a loan, chiefly from France, of 4,000,000; the greater part of the loan went to liquidate claims by Europeans against the maghzen. Amirs And Sultans 4 Of Morocco I.-Idrisi Dynasty (Arab), A.D. (Capital, Fez.) 788. Idris I.
79 1. Rashid (regent).
804. Idris II. 828. Mahomet I.
836. `Ali I. 848. Yahya I. 881. Yahya II. 894. `Ali II.
Yahya III.
904. Yahya IV.
(Interregnum from 917.) 922. El Hasan I. " El Hallam." (Fez lost to the Miknasa 925.) 935. El Kerman (at Hajrat en-Nasr).
94 8. 'Abu`l'Aish Ahmed.
954. El Hasan II. (at Basra).
961. `Abd-Allah I.
970. Mahomet II. (Subjugated by the Maghrawa 985.) II.-Miknasa Dynasty (Berber). (Capital, Fez.) 925. Musa I. " Ibn Abd-el-`Aafia." 93 8. Madin.
95 2. Ibrahim I.
973. El Bari.
1014. El Kasem I.
For an account of Bu Hamara's career see Questions diplomatiques (Oct. 16, 1909).
4 Title of sultan adopted about 1640.
III.-Maghrawa Dynasty (Berber). (Capital, Fez.) 988. Ziri ibn `Atia.
moo. El M uaz.
1026. Hammama.
1039. Dunas.
1060. El Fatuh and `Ajisa.
1065. El Moannasir.
1067. Tamim.
IV.-Murabti Dynasty (Berber). (Capital, Marrakesh.) 1061. Yusef I. (Bin Tashfin.) 1106. `Ali III.
1143. Tashfin I.
1145. Ibrahim II.
1146. Ishak.
V.-Muwahhadi Dynasty (Berber). (Capitals, Marrakesh and Seville.) 1145. `Abd-el-M umin.
1163. Yusef II., " Abu'Ya`kub." 1184. Ya`kub I., " Abu Yusef el Mansur." 1199. Mahomet III., " En-Nasir." 1214. Yusef III., " Abu Yakub el Mustansir." 1223. `Abd-el-Wahid, " El Makhluwi." 1224. `Abd-Allah II., " Abu Mahomet." 1226. Yahya V., " El Mu`tasim." 1229. Idris III., " El Mamun." 1232. Rashid I., " Abd-el-Wahid." 1242. `Ali IV., " Es-Said el Mu`tadid." (Mequinez lost to Beni Mann 1245.) 1248. `Omar I., " El Mortada." (Fez lost to Beni Malin, 1248.) 1266. Idris IV., " Abu Dabbus el Wathik." (Marrakesh lost to Beni Marin, 1269.) VI.-Beni Mann Dynasty (Berber). (Capitals, Marrakesh.) 1213. `Abd-el-Hakk.
1217. `Othman I., " Abu Said I." 1239. Mahomet IV., " Abu Marraf." 1244. Abu Bakr.
1258. Yakub II., " bin `Abd-el-Hakk." 1286. Yusef IV.
1307. `Amr, " Abu Thabit." 1308. Sulaiman I., " Abu Rebi`a." 1310. `Othman II., " Abu Said II." 1320. `Omar II. (at Sajilmasa).
1331. `Ali V., " Abu'l Hasan." 1351. Faris I., " Abu`Ainan." 1358. Sa'id I. (a child).
1 359. Ibrahim III., " Abu Salem." Tashfin II., " Abu `Omar." 1361. - `Abd-el-Halim (in Sajilmasa).
Mahomet V.
1366. `Abd-el-`Aziz I.
1372. Mahomet VI., " Es-Said." 1374. {Ahmed I., " Abu'l'Abbas " (in Fez).
Abd-er-Rahman I. (in Marrakesh).
1384. MUsa II. and Ahmed II., " Es Mustansir." 1386. Mahomet VII., " El Wathik." 1387. Ahmed I. (2nd reign).
1 393. `Abd-el-`Aziz II., " Abu Faris." 1396. Faris II., " El MutawaWl." 1408. Abu Sa'id III.
1416. Sa'id II. and Yakub III. 1425. `Abd-Allah III. (after whom ceases) .
VII.-Wattasi Dynasty (Berber). (Capital, Fez.) 1471. Sa'id III., " Es-Sheikh el Wattas." 1500. Mahomet VIII., "The Portuguese." 1530. Ahmed III. (in Fez).
1548. Mahomet X. (Defeated by the Sharifs, 1550.) VIII.-Sa'adi Dynasty (Arab). (Capitals, Fez, Mequinez and Marrakesh.) {Mahomet III. (in Marrakesh). 1524 ' Mahomet IX. (in Tarudant).
1 557. `Abd-Allah, " El Ghalib." 1 574. Mahomet XI., " El Mutawa l?k il." 1576. 'Abd-el-Malek I., " El Muatasim." 1578. Ahmed IV., " El Mansur " or " Dhahebi." 1603. Mahomet XII., " Es-Sheikh." `Abd-el-'Aziz III., " Abu Faris." 1608. Zidan.
1628. 'Abd-el-Malek II.
1631. El Walid.
1636. Mahomet XIII., " Es-Sheikh Es-Saghir." (Fez lost to the Filalis, 1649.) 1654. Ahmed V., " El Abbas." 1658. `Abd-el-Karim in Marrakesh. (Overthrown by Filalis, 1668.) IX.-Filali Dynasty (Arab). (Capitals, Fez, Mequinez and Marrakesh.) 1649. Mahomet XIV., " Es-Sharif." 1664. Rashid II.
1672. Isma`il, " The Bloodthirsty." 1727. Ahmed VI., " Ed-Dhahebi II." 1728. 'Abd-el-Malek III., " Abu Merwan." 1729. `Abd-Allah V., " El Mortada." 1734. `Ali VI.
1736. Mahomet XV., " Uld er-Riba." 1738. El Mustadi.
1 745. Zin el `Abdin.
1757. Mahomet XVI.
1790. El Yazid.
1792. El Hisham.
1 795. Sulaiman II.
1822. `Abd-er-Rahman II.
18J9. Mahomet XVII.
1873. El Hasan III.
1894. `Abd-el-`Aziz IV.
1908. Hafid.
NoTE.-The dates given are those in which the various rulers acquired sovereign power. Many had already secured the allegiance of certain provinces some time before, and many retained such allegiance long after the greater portion of the empire had accepted a successful rival. European nations in several instances treated with men who were not at the time actual sovereigns, and in some cases were never such.
Bibliography.-History: Budgett Meakin, The Moorish Empire, an historical epitome (London, 1899; which contains critical notices of all important books on Morocco to date); Ernest Mercier, Histoire de l'Afrique septentrionale (3 vols., Paris, 1888-1891). Principal authorities: Native-Ibn`Abd el Hakim, embracing the period from A.D. 690 to 750 (trans. Jones; Gottingen, 1858); `Abd el Wahid el Marrakeshi (1149-1224), trans. E. Fagnan in the Revue Africaine, pp. 202-207 (1891), Raod el Karts (788-1326), trans. Baumier (Paris, 1860); El Makkari (710-1500), trans. Gayangos (London, 1840); El Ufrani (1631-1812), trans. Houdas (Paris, 1889); and En Nasiri (710-1894; Cairo, 1895). Foreign-Diego de Torres, Relation del Origen y suceso de los xarifes (Seville, 1586); Faria y Sousa, Africa Portuguesa (Lisbon, 1681); Mouette, Histoire des Conquestes de Mouley Archy, &c. (Paris, 1683); De el Puerto, Mission historial de marruecos (Seville, 1708); Busnot, Histoire du regne de Muley Ismail (Rouen, 1714); Louis S. de Chenier, Recherches historiques sur les Maures (3 vols., Paris, 1787); Mas Latrie, Traites de paix, &c. (3 vols., Paris, 1866-1872), and Relations et commerce de l'Afrique septentrionale (Paris, 1886).
Geography.-Budgett Meakin, The Land of the Moors (a general description, London, 1901); Ch. De Foucauld, Reconnaissance au Maroc, text and maps (Paris, 1888; by far the most extensive, detailed and original exploration up to that date undertaken in Morocco, admirably illustrated) , J. D. Hooker and John Ball, Marocco and the Great Atlas (London, 1878; the trustworthy record of a serious and well-equipped scientific expedition, valuable chiefly for its botanical information); Gerhard Rohlfs, Adventures in Morocco (London, 1874; previous to De Foucauld's achievement, the most extensive journey recorded in modern times); Walter B. Harris, Tafilet (London, 1895; recounts a plucky journey across the Atlas); Joseph Thomson, Travels in the Atlas (London, 1889; the narrative of a restricted excursion from Marrakesh); H. de la Martiniere, Journeys in the Kingdom of Fez (London, 1889; chief value archaeological); Rafael Pezzi, Los presidios menores de Africa (Madrid, 1893; an account of the Spanish possessions in Morocco); Captain Jules Erckmann, Le Maroc moderne (Paris, 1885; includes parts not open to Europeans, visited by the author as an officer in the Moorish army); Capt. E. Bonelli, El Imperio de Marruecos (Madrid, 1882; a somewhat similar work, by a Spanish officer); F. de A. de Urrestazu, Viages por Marruecos (Madrid, 1877; descriptions by a Spaniard born in the country and travelling as a native); G. D. Cowan and R. L. N. Johnston, Moorish Lotos Leaves (London, 1883; trustworthy papers dealing with south central Morocco); Emilien Renou, Description géographique de l'empire du Maroc (Paris, 1846; a compendium of information available at that date); J. Canal, Geographie generale du Maroc (Paris, 1902); Mission de Segonzac, Voyages au Maroc 1899-1901 (Paris, 1903) and later publications of the Segonzac Mission; Ch. Tissot, Recherches sur la geographie cornparee de la Maure'tanie Tingitane (Paris, 1877; a valuable archaeological survey); M. Besnier, " Geographie ancienne du Maroc" and " Recueil des descriptions antiques," both in No. III. of Archives marocaines (Paris, 1904); Leo Africanus, Description of Africa, 1526, trans. Pory, 1600; ed. Dr Robert Brown, for Hakluyt Society (3 vols., London, 1896; a wonderful work for its period, always of interest, but the source of many oft-repeated errors in books on Morocco).
Geology.-G. Maw, " Notes on the Geology of the Plain of Morocco and the Great Atlas," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1872), vol. xxviii.; J. Thomson, " Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Geography and Geology of the Atlas Range in the Empire of Morocco," Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1889, Newcastle Meeting; P. Schnell Fez, Mequinez and the record of this dynasty L' Atlas marocain (Paris, 1898); A. Brives, " Contribution a l'etude geologique de l'Atlas marocain," Bull. Soc. Geol. France (Oct. 1905). Ethnology. - Budgett Meakin, The Moors (London, 1902; a minute account of manners and customs); James G. Jackson, An Account of the Empire of Morocco (London, 1809; the authoritative description for a century); Georg Host, Efterretninger om Marokos og Fes (a work still of great value; Copenhagen, 1779); Thomas Pellow, Captivity and Adventures, 1736 (ed. Dr Robert Brown, London, 1890; one of the best and most intimate narratives of the European slaves); Count Sternburg, The Barbarians of Morocco (London, 1908).
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