Bible Commentaries
Philippians 4

Verses 1-3

Therefore, my brothers and sisters, you whom I love and long for, my joy and crown, stand firm in the Lord in this way, dear friends! Philippians 4:1

Reflecting on what Paul has previously said, he now brings closure. The English Baptist minister and lecturer, Peter Pett, sees the whole section of verses 1-9 as a kind of summary of the whole letter.^(F1) The Philippians are Paul's precious brothers and sisters whom he loves dearly. They are his joy and crown. The crown (Gk. stephanos) mentioned here is the crown of victory rather than the king's crown (Gk. diadema). The Philippians were looked on as a kind of trophy of Paul's notable apostolic race (Philippians 1:6; 4:1; 1 Thessalonians 2:19). "They were the present proof that he had indeed not run in vain, and were the guarantee of the genuineness of God's work through him."^(F2) No doubt, one of Paul's greatest joys was the thought that he could present Christians and churches as mature and complete in Christ on the Day of the Lord.

The Philippians are to stand firm in the Lord (Gk. stēkete). In chapter 3:12-15, he was urging them to run with all their might and now he is urging them to stand still. We might see this as a picture of the runner standing with utmost focus and concentration just before the signal is given to begin the race. There are times in our lives when we need to stand quietly before the Lord as we gain his understanding and strength for what lies ahead.

"I plead with Euodia and I plead with Syntyche to be of the same mind in the Lord" (4:2). Paul now, for the first time, begins to name some of the Philippians His profound concern is about divisions in the church and he has already mentioned this on several occasions (1:27; 2:1-4,14).^(F3) There has been a great deal of speculation about Euodia and Syntyche, as to who they really were. Since the Philippian church began with some devout women who worshipped God by the riverside (Acts 16:13-15), we might assume that these two were some of them. Apparently they were prominent members of the church, and their divisions were posing a serious threat to unity. Some have proposed that they were husband and wife but both names are feminine in the Greek language. Paul also uses feminine pronouns to refer to the two.^(F4)

It has been proposed by many that these two women were deaconesses in the church at Philippi. There is considerable evidence that the early church had ministering women in such an office. Barnes mentions Romans 16:1 and 1 Timothy 5:9 to back up his argument that there was such an office. These women apparently cared for the female members of the church.^(F5) Other writers such a Lightfoot, Clark and Faussett agree with Barnes. However, the matter of deaconesses is still an unsettled one for many commentators.

"Yes, and I ask you, my true companion, help these women since they have contended at my side in the cause of the gospel, along with Clement and the rest of my co-workers, whose names are in the book of life"(4:3). Now Paul presents us with another mystery. Who is the true companion or loyal yokefellow? Obviously, he was someone very well known to the apostle. Perhaps he was also well known to the whole church. The Greek word Paul uses is suzugos, and some commentators feel that this could even be a personal name. However, the Greek scholar William Barclay turns thumbs down on this idea. There was, in fact, no name in the Greek world that matched with this.^(F6)

Utley, suggests that this true companion was none other than Luke. Luke accompanied Paul on many of his journeys. We can know when Luke was on the journey by the famous "we sections" of Acts Utley notes that these "we sections" here start and stop at Philippi. He suggests that Luke may have stayed on there to minister.^(F7) Of course, we don't really know who this person was. He could have even been Epaphroditus. He could have also been a beloved pastor known to Paul at Philippi.

We note that these two women mentioned had actually worked with Paul in some manner. When we look at how restrictive it was for women in ministry at Ephesus (1 Timothy 2:11-15) and at Corinth (1 Corinthians 11:3-16), we might wonder how this could be. Barclay points out that things were much different in Macedonia. Women had a freedom there that was not found in Greece. It seemed that women in Macedonia were not hesitant to take a leading role in the church.^(F8) Fee adds that in Macedonia, women even took a much larger role in public life than elsewhere in the Roman Empire.^(F9) If they indeed had some leading role, it would certainly magnify the disagreement they had with one another and in time affect the whole church.

It seems that Paul is full of mysteries here in Philippians He mentions that these women worked along with him and with one Clement. Again, we have no idea who this man was. Several commentators, even those in early times, felt this was Clement of Rome, the famous leader of the church there.^(F10) Unfortunately, Rome is a great distance from Philippi. Clement was also a common name so there is very little chance of a match here.

This mysterious Clement along with other fellow workers have their names written down in the Book of Life. They may be unknown to men but they are not unknown to God. The Book of God he speaks of is mentioned in Exodus 32:32-33. Also it is referred to in Psalms 69:28 and in Revelation 3:5; 13:8; 20:12; 20:15; 21:27; 22:19. It is interesting today that Jewish people still greet each other just prior to the Day of Atonement with the words, L'Shanah Tovah Tikatevu (May you be inscribed in the Book of Life for a good year); or withGemar Chatimah Tovah (May your final sealing in the Book of Life be good).

Verses 4-7

LIVING A LIFE OF REJOICING

Rejoice in the Lord always. I will say it again: Rejoice! Philippians 4:4

Here we have the theme of Philippians once more clearly stated. It is the theme of having joy and rejoicing. Paul has mentioned it several times already (cf. 1:25-26; 2:17-18; 3:1). He has in fact mentioned this theme in every chapter, and he will still mention it again in this chapter (4:10). Christian joy and rejoicing are much unlike any so-called "joy" in this world. The world's joy fades and passes away often leaving people in great sadness. The joy of the Lord abides forever. In John 16:22 Jesus says, "… no one will take away your joy."

The joy of the Lord is not based on circumstances but upon the Lord himself. It was true even in the Old Testament that God's people could rejoice regardless of their circumstances. Habakkuk says, "Though the fig tree does not bud and there are no grapes on the vines, though the olive crop fails and the fields produce no food, though there are no sheep in the pen and no cattle in the stalls, yet I will rejoice in the LORD, I will be joyful in God my Savior" (Habakkuk 3:17-18). How much more are we now able to rejoice since we know the Lord Jesus and delight ourselves in his salvation.

Christianity has often robed itself in black and has presented a long face to the public. One of our friends, who was noted for her quips, thought that black must be the devil's favorite color. Christian joy is not robed in black and neither does it have a long face. The Christian is to be filled with joy and laughter and this joy is contagious. Neighbour says in rhyme, "We need to let our lives and our lips express, the Holy gospel we possess."^(F11)

"Let your gentleness be evident to all. The Lord is near" (4:5). The Greek word here for "gentleness" is "epieikeia,"and it has various meanings. Matthew Arnold calls it a "sweet reasonableness."^(F12) Barclay says that it is a most untranslatable word. It can mean moderation, patience, softness, modesty or forbearance. He says of the one who possesses it that such a one, "…knows when not to apply the strict letter of the law, when to relax justice and introduce mercy."^(F13) We immediately think of our Lord and his encounter with the woman caught in adultery. The strict letter of the law required that she be stoned to death. Yet, Jesus surprised everyone by forgiving her and instructing her to leave her sinful life (John 8:3-11).

Our gentleness or reasonableness is based on the fact that the Lord is near. Christians are to live with the expectation of his coming. In Revelation 3:20, Jesus is pictured as standing at our doors.^(F14) All this reminds us of the Aramaic term maranatha (come Lord Jesus) as seen in 1 Corinthians 16:22.

"Do not be anxious about anything, but in everything, by prayer and petition, with thanksgiving, present your requests to God" (4:6). This command about not being anxious is surely a needy one for our age. The writer and minister, Max Lucado, in speaking on the 700 Club noted that children today have the anxiety level of the psychiatric patients back in the 1950s.^(F15) We are beset with many worries and fears in our society. Of course, a cure for anxiety is prayer, petition and thanksgiving to the true God. We should be able to cast all our cares upon the Lord (Psalm 55:22; 1 Peter 5:7).

Wiersbe says that "worry is the greatest thief of joy" and that "worry is an inside job."^(F16) We strictly bring it upon ourselves. Most of the things we worry about will never happen and most of these things are simply not true anyway. "Dr. Walter Cavert reported a survey on worry, indicating that only 8 percent of the things people worried about were legitimate matters of concern! The other 92 percent were either imaginary, never happened, or involved matters over which the people had no control anyway."^(F17)

So, we do not pray enough. That is our big problem. The second problem is that we are not thankful. We might want to remember how many gifts we have given to others for various occasions and how few times these folks have ever bothered to say "thanks." Jesus in his great compassion once healed ten lepers of their awful disease. He was surprised that only one of the ten returned to thank him. That man fell on his face before Jesus and glorified God with a loud voice. He was not even Jewish but was a Samaritan (Luke 17:12-19). The Lord waits for our thanksgiving. We need to continually thank him. This in itself is a good medicine against fear and anxiety.

"And the peace of God, which transcends all understanding, will guard your hearts and your minds in Christ Jesus" (4:7). When we pray with thanksgiving and cast our cares upon the Lord, his great peace comes upon us. It is like the peace that comes upon the lake after a mighty storm. It is a peace beyond our understanding and it has its origin in God. This peace will guard our hearts. The picture here from the Greek language is that of a military sentinel standing guard over a city, or a military garrison stationed on the inside of a city.^(F18)

We think of that wonderful verse in Isaiah 26:3-4, "You will keep in perfect peace those whose minds are steadfast, because they trust in you. Trust in the LORD forever, for the LORD, the LORD himself, is the Rock eternal." We think of the Lord's own words in John 14:27, "Peace I leave with you; my peace I give you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do not let your hearts be troubled and do not be afraid."

Verses 8-9

GETTING GOOD THINGS INTO OUR THOUGHT PATTERNS

Finally, brothers and sisters, whatever is true, whatever is noble, whatever is right, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is admirable – if anything is excellent or praiseworthy – think about such things. Philippians 4:8

Paul does an amazing thing in this section. He lists a number of virtues that are often found in the vocabulary of pagan philosophers. As Thielman notes, "Paul's list of virtues… assumes that the world contains many good qualities that merit the believer's consideration and affirmation. It also assumes that the pagan world has some notion of good and bad, right and wrong, duty and irresponsibility, beauty and ugliness, honor and shame."^(F19) Fee also notes that the believer should embrace the good wherever it is found, but he should be careful to embrace it in a discriminating way. He continues saying, "It is decidedly not Paul's view that only what is explicitly Christian (be it literature, art, music, movies or whatever) is worth seeing or hearing. Truth and beauty are where you find them."^(F20) After all, despite what this world says, truth is truth, and the truth of the Lord will endure.

Let us take a look at this list of virtues. First on the list is truth itself. As we have pointed out on other occasions, there is a big problem with this term today. In the last half-century the postmodern philosophers have cheapened this word until it is almost meaningless. Truth for them is ever-changing and relative. We might call it "false truth," or "broken truth." Before we can speak effectively to this generation we must first come to an understanding with them as to what truth actually is. Of course, as Christians, we know that Jesus is the truth (John 14:6) and that the truth of the Lord endures forever (2 John 1:2). Clearly, these philosophers have exchanged the truth for a lie as Paul warns in Romans 1:25.

Next on Paul's list of virtues is "noble" (Gk. semnos). Sometimes this is translated as grave, venerable, serious or dignified. Barclay describes it as, "a person who…moves throughout the world as if it were the temple of God."^(F21) Paul then brings up the Greek word "right" or "righteous" (dikaios). Barclay describes this virtue as "duty faced and duty done."^(F22) Then Paul mentions "pure" (Gk. hagnos). This term could best be described as holy, chaste or innocent.^(F23) These people are the morally undefiled.

Paul goes on with his list speaking of things that are lovely or lovable (Gk. prosphile). This would include those things which are pleasing, agreeable, or amiable.^(F24) Then there is the word "admirable" (Gk. euphema). This term could be translated praiseworthy or commendable. Barclay says, "It literally means fair-speaking, but it was specially connected with the holy silence at the beginning of a sacrifice in the presence of the gods. It might not be going too far to say that it describes the things which are fit for God to hear."^(F25) From this Greek root we get our words euphemistic and euphemism.

Paul has two more expressions for us and they are "excellent" and "praiseworthy." Excellent (arete) was the important classical Greek word for "virtue" or "moral excellence." The Greek Septuagint avoided it, and Paul uses it only here. Fee sees this as clear evidence that Paul did not totally shy away from the language of the Greek moralists.^(F26)

The last term Paul uses is "praiseworthy," or "praise" (Gk. epainos) as it is listed in several popular translations. This word has a pretty standard meaning and there is no need to comment further upon it.

Paul's challenge is that we think upon these types of things. We can certainly see how such thoughts would be much better than a mind filled with pornography or selfish ambition. The Jewish Rabbis felt that the mind was the seedbed of the soul.^(F27) The Bible does say of man, "For as he thinks in his heart, so is he…" (Proverbs 23:7 NKJ). Barclay says, "it is a law of life that, if a man thinks of something often enough, he will come to the stage when he cannot stop thinking about it."^(F28) How true the little lines of Ralph Waldo Emerson that go like this:

Sow a thought and you reap an action;
sow an act and you reap a habit;
sow a habit and you reap a character;
sow a character and you reap a destiny."

"Whatever you have learned or received or heard from me, or seen in me – put it into practice. And the God of peace will be with you" (4:9). It is such a blessing for the sheep when the shepherds can recommend that the flock follows them and imitates them in everything. It seems that so few leaders can do this or say it today.

The church at Philippi must remember what they have learned from Paul. The word "received" (Gk. paralambano) probably is a technical term and has to do with the sacred traditions that Paul had handed down to them.^(F29)

As the people are faithful in doing these things, the God of peace will be with them. This is Paul's favorite title for God as we see in Romans 16:20; 1 Corinthians 14:33; and 1 Thessalonians 5:23.^(F30) Trapp speaks of this peace of God saying, "This peace, like David's harp, drives away the evil spirit of cares and fears."^(F31)

Verses 10-13

PAUL'S THANKFUL HEART

I rejoice greatly in the Lord that at last you have renewed your concern for me. Indeed, you have been concerned, but you had no opportunity to show it. Philippians 4:10

In our western culture we may wonder why Paul has waited until near the end of the letter to thank the Philippians for their gift. We would likely do that first of all. We need to remember that the people of this church lived in an orally-based culture. The letter was read before the whole congregation and Paul's thankfulness would be the last thing ringing in their ears.^(F32) John Dummelow, who edited a very popular Bible commentary in the early twentieth century feels that the Philippians may have been a bit grieved over the reception of the gift,^(F33) and perhaps Paul was trying to smooth this out.

Apparently there had been some lagging from the Philippians concerning sending gifts to Paul. The apostle in his joy excuses this, supposing that they lacked opportunity. This was not the 21st century and it was not always possible to find a messenger going from one city to another. Of course there was no regular mail service. Paul was delighted that their care was renewed. The word he uses is a picture of plants blossoming after some dryness.^(F34)

"I am not saying this because I am in need, for I have learned to be content whatever the circumstances" (4:11). Despite what many prosperity teachers say today, we have proof here and in other places, that Paul was sometimes in need (cf. 2 Corinthians 11:27). Even Jesus was hungry on occasions (Mark 11:12). Paul had learned the secret of being content with an empty stomach or a full one. For the word "content" the apostle uses another of those well-known terms from the Stoic philosophers, the Greek word autarkes. To the Stoics, it meant self-sufficient, but to Paul it meant "Christ-sufficient."^(F35)

We need to understand a little about the prison system in the Roman world. Prisons of that day did not provide all the luxuries that are offered today. Prisoners could not complain about their food rations in a Roman prison because there were none.^(F36) Prisoners were left to their own means and to whatever provisions would be brought in by friends and relatives. Obviously, with such a system it was quite possible to go hungry.

Most people in the first century were certainly not wealthy. Christians did not desire wealth per se and like Jesus they knew the dangers of having wealth. Many probably took on the attitude of Proverbs 30:8-9, "…give me neither poverty nor riches, but give me only my daily bread. Otherwise, I may have too much and disown you and say, 'Who is the LORD?' Or I may become poor and steal, and so dishonor the name of my God." Apparently, Paul looked on wealth in just this way.

Wiersbe notes that, "Prosperity has done more damage to believers than has adversity." He reminds us of the church in Revelation 3:17 that was "rich" and had need of nothing.^(F37) Long ago, one of the things that discouraged me from continuing in the normal ministry was hearing how a $10,000 chandelier in one wealthy church fell and broke all to pieces. How can such things be justified when most of the world is in want? Richard Foster once said, "anyone with enough money to buy a book is wealthy relative to the rest of the world."^(F38)

"I know what it is to be in need, and I know what it is to have plenty. I have learned the secret of being content in any and every situation, whether well fed or hungry, whether living in plenty or in want" (4:12). Here Paul is living out the testimony he would later make to Timothy, saying, "…godliness with contentment is great gain" (1 Timothy 6:6). The expression, "I have learned the secret," is the Greek memuēmai. It is a word that was commonly used in the mystery religions,^(F39) and it had the meaning of being initiated.

We gather from this section that the apostle was very circumspect about finances. In those days there were charlatan philosophers everywhere. The second century satirist Lucian tells of them saying, "They collect tribute, going from house to house, or, as they themselves express it, they 'shear the sheep' and they expect many to give, either out of respect for their cloth or for fear of their abusive language."^(F40)

Through all his trials Paul had learned the secret of contentment that so few know today. Stedman tells the story of a Quaker who put a sign on his house saying that he would give it to anyone who could prove that he or she was content. After a while there was a knock at the door from a man who had seen the sign and who wanted claim the house. The man claimed complete contentment. The Quaker replied, "Friend, if thee is so content what does thee want with my house?"^(F41) I remember hearing the story of a farmer who said he would be content if he just had all the ground that joined his land.

Now Paul comes out with the verse that is known and cherished by Christians everywhere. He says, "I can do all this through him who gives me strength." (4:13). "T. R. Glover said, 'The Stoics made of the heart a desert, and called it a peace.' …The Stoic said, 'I will learn to be content by a deliberate act of my own will.' Paul said, 'I can do all things through Christ who infuses his strength into me.'"^(F42)

Guzik warns us here saying, "Unfortunately, many people take this verse out of context and use it to reinforce a 'triumphalist' or 'super-Christian' mentality, instead of seeing that the strength of Jesus in Paul's life was evident in his ability to be content when he did suffer need… We must always also put this precious statement of faith in connection with John 15:5, '…apart from me you can do nothing.' With Jesus we can do all things, without him we can't do anything."^(F43)

Verses 14-20

SHARING IN THE MINISTRY

Yet it was good of you to share in my troubles. Philippians 4:14

Here once more Paul uses the koinonia language of sharing that he began in 1:5. Commentators have noted in this section that there is a proliferation of commercial terms (vs. 14-18) having to do with friendship and benefits one to another. With these understandings friends could be expected to help one another even if there was personal sacrifice involved.^{Philippians 4:15-18 which can be verified and defined from the Koine Greek papyri found in Egypt and the ostraca (broken pottery used as writing material). This first one was a banking term for an open account…. As a rabbi he was not allowed to take money for his teaching."">(F44)}

The Philippians had entered into such a relationship with Paul as he shared the gospel in distant places. They shared with him when he ministered at Thessalonica, a city about 90 miles (140 km.) to the west on the Via Egnatia.^(F45)

"Moreover, as you Philippians know, in the early days of your acquaintance with the gospel, when I set out from Macedonia, not one church shared with me in the matter of giving and receiving, except you only; for even when I was in Thessalonica, you sent me aid more than once when I was in need" (4:15-16). Obviously, the Philippians had shared with Paul often in the early days after he had visited them. Paul even boasted about their giving when he spoke to the Corinthians (2 Corinthians 8:1-5). The apostle had also supported himself by working with his hands making tents (1 Thessalonians 2:9; 2 Thessalonians 3:7-9).

Early Christian ministries had a much different system of support than most ministries have today. Cyrpian, of Carthage, in the third century, was the first writer to mention the practice of ministerial support. The practice, however, did not become a widespread thing until the eighth century.^(F46) It appears that early ministries subsisted largely by faith, as a few still do today. After all, if ministers share spiritual things, it is only fair that they should receive carnal blessings from their flocks as in 1 Corinthians 9:11.

"Not that I desire your gifts; what I desire is that more be credited to your account" (4:17). Paul is still speaking in the commercial language we mentioned earlier.^(F47) It is wonderful that the apostle could have such a view of material gifts. He was more interested in the Philippians getting credit than receiving the gift himself. There is a promise in Hebrews 6:10 about this which says, "God is not unjust; he will not forget your work and the love you have shown him as you have helped his people and continue to help them."

Paul continues, "I have received full payment and have more than enough. I am amply supplied, now that I have received from Epaphroditus the gifts you sent. They are a fragrant offering, an acceptable sacrifice, pleasing to God" (4:18). With his statement "I have received full payment" Paul finishes the usage of the commercial metaphors.^(F48) Some have insinuated that the apostle was not truly thankful for the gifts sent to him but this verse should dispel that idea. He considered the gift "a fragrant offering." This compares very closely with the offerings made in ancient Israel (cf. Genesis 8:21; Exodus 29:18,25,41; Leviticus 1:9). In offerings of old, God was said to have smelled the "re-ach ni-ho-ach (Hebrews)," or the pleasing, and satisfying odor of the sacrifice. This gives us an indication of how some offerings can be made even in the church today as we help other Christians in their work.

Jesus says in Matthew 10:41-42, "Whoever welcomes a prophet as a prophet will receive a prophet's reward, and whoever welcomes a righteous person as a righteous person will receive a righteous person's reward. And if anyone gives even a cup of cold water to one of these little ones who is my disciple, truly I tell you, that person will certainly not lose their reward." Also, we read in Hebrews 13:16, "And do not forget to do good and to share with others, for with such sacrifices God is pleased."

The Philippians were probably people with average means, with exception of Lydia and a few others. Yet, they accrued for themselves immense rewards from the hand of God. John Trapp tries to describe this saying:

As a bird with a little eye, and the advantage of a wing to soar with, may see far wider than an ox with a greater; so the righteous with a little estate, joined with faith and devotion, may feel more comfort and see more of God's bounty than one of vast possessions, whose heart cannot lift itself above the earth.^(F49)

"And my God will meet all your needs according to his glorious riches in Christ Jesus" (4:19). No doubt millions of sincere believers over the centuries have clung to this verse as they have waited for the Lord to supply their needs. We should note that this verse is talking about our needs and not our wants. Oft times, God even supplies some of our wants.

Stedman remarks, "Someone has said that at the beginning of this [20th] century the average American wanted 72 things, 18 of which he regarded as necessary. But by the mid-century mark, 1950, the list of American wants had grown to 496 things, 96 of which he regarded as absolute necessities."^(F50)

We should not forget the Lord's own rule in matters of giving and receiving. He says in Luke 6:38, "Give, and it will be given to you. A good measure, pressed down, shaken together and running over, will be poured into your lap. For with the measure you use, it will be measured to you."

Paul now gives his benediction, "To our God and Father be glory for ever and ever. Amen" (4:20). It is said that Paul always has a doxology along with his theology.

Verses 21-23

PAUL'S FINAL GREETINGS

Greet all God's people in Christ Jesus. The brothers and sisters who are with me send greetings. Philippians 4:21

Paul ends with a general salutation here and not with greetings to lists of people as he does for instance in the Book of Romans. Perhaps, since the church at Philippi was so dear to him, the list would have just been too long. Coffman says, "If Paul saluted a few friends by name at the end of this epistle, it would have been an insult to a hundred others whom he personally knew in Philippi."^(F51)

It is entirely possible that the apostle wrote this last section in his own handwriting as he did in several of his epistles. This was his technique of authenticating his letters (cf.1 Corinthians 16:21; Galatians 6:11; Colossians 4:18; 2 Thessalonians 3:17; Philemon 1:19).^(F52)

"All God's people here send you greetings, especially those who belong to Caesar's household. The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ be with your spirit. Amen" (4:22-23). Robertson seems amazed at the ending here. He remarks how, "…this obscure prisoner who has planted the gospel in Caesar's household has won more eternal fame and power than all the Caesars combined. Nero will commit suicide shortly after Paul had been executed. Nero's star went down and Paul's rose and rises still."^(F53)

The mention of Caesar's household must have been a huge encouragement to the church at Philippi. Barclay enlightens us on this saying:

It is important to understand this phrase rightly. It does not mean those who are of Caesar's kith and kin. Caesar's household was the regular phrase for what we would call the Imperial Civil Service; it had members all over the world. The palace officials, the secretaries, the people who had charge of the imperial revenues, those who were responsible for the day-to-day administration of the empire, all these were Caesar's household. It is of the greatest interest to note that even as early as this Christianity had penetrated into the very center of the Roman government.^(F54)

Thus, Paul ends his short but joyous epistle to the first church in Europe, the church of the Philippians Barclay says, "It was to be another three hundred years before Christianity became the religion of the empire, but already the first signs of the ultimate triumph of Christ were to be seen. The crucified Galilean carpenter had already begun to rule those who ruled the greatest empire in the world."^(F55)