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Zarḳo, Judah ben Abraham

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Symbols denoting vocal stresses on particular syllables in pronouncing words or sentences. 1. In every word we utter, one syllable is spoken with greater emphasis and clearer enunciation than the rest. About it, as the strongly stressed or accented element, the other unaccented, or rather less strongly accented, syllables are grouped. Thus, in the word "contradict" the last syllable is the bearer of the main accent; a weaker, secondary accent rests on the first, while the italicized intermediate syllable is unaccented. Similarly, in a sentence, some words are pronounced with marked distinctness, while others are spoken hastily, almost without a stop, and made to lean forward or backward, as the italicized words in "he is a man of the world"; "I knew it." Both the accent which belongs to every word in itself ("word-accent") and the one which indicates its rank in a sentence ("sentence-accent") are to be regarded as the vital force which welds disjointed speech-elements into harmonious sense-units. The stops become particularly noticeable when, in a larger complex of clauses, they serve to mark the limits of each clause and its relation to the others. Some pauses are bound to be made, on physical grounds, to take breath; it is nearly always so arranged that the logical pauses shall coincide with those intervals. In an ordinary page of English the word-accent is never indicated (as it is in Greek), nor do the signs of punctuation (. :; ,) show all the stops which careful reading in accordance with sense (especially oratorical delivery or the forceful recitàl of a literary masterpiece) requires. In the Hebrew text of the Bible, on the contrary, is found an elaborate system of signs (notations of stresses, or Accents) by which the stronger as well as the weaker stresses belonging to syllables and words are marked, so that a reader who is acquainted with the use of the symbols may recite the sacred texts correctly and, in appearance at least, intelligently, without considering grammar or sense.

Name.

2. The Hebrew (Aramaic) word ), plural ), which is used in the See see MASORAH in the sense of "accent," "accents," denotes, in the first place, "taste" (in the literal sense, as in Exodus 16:31); then, "judgment," "good sense" (see 1 Samuel 25:33); in Talmudic Hebrew, "sense" ( "words of sense"; "admitting of more than one sense"). This is the oldest term which thus conclusively proves that the Biblical system of accentuation was primarily designed to mark the various degrees of logical, or sense, pausation. This method of punctilious distribution of great and small pauses led, however, to a peculiar intonation in a half-singing style which is called CANTILLATION; this may still be heard in (orthodox) Jewish synagogues. The Accents have the secondary function of marking this intonation, each symbol being equal to several musical notes. Hence their appellation in Arabic, laḥn, plural alḥan, as early as Ibn Koreish, and the Hebrew term "melody," plural .

On the term "trop" (the same as the English "trope," in the sense of a musical cadence) used by the Jews in their vernaculars, see Berliner, "Beiträgezur hebräischen Grammatik in Talmud und Midrasch," p. 29, note 4, Berlin, 1879.

Sentence-Accent.

3. All of the Hebrew Accents are properly "sentence-accents." Hence they vary in form ( etc.) in accordance with their varying pausal functions. The sign once chosen, the "word-accent" is indicated by its place in the accented syllable, above or below the initial consonant in the center; when there is a vowel sign below, the latter occupies the center, while the accent sign is placed farther to the left: . Some of the accents are placed, without regard to the accented syllable, invariably at the beginning or at the end of the word (hence termed prepositives and postpositives: ; in the editions of Baer, the notation is repeated on the accented syllable: ). A secondary accent ( "bridle," that is, check) is indicated by . A word may lose its accent; then it is joined by means of a hyphen ( "coupler") to the next following word: , ; the words thus united are regarded, for purposes of accentuation, as one word: .

Place of Word-Accent.

Hebrew words have their main accent either on the last syllable ( "below") or on the penult (next to the last syllable) ( "above"). The accent is never found farther back (for a seeming exception see below). In the majority of words (word-types) the accent falls upon the last syllable: , etc. Penultimate accentuation is found in the pronouns (and the shorter form (similarly in the dissyllabic suffixes ); in verbal forms of all stems (conjugations) ending in ), ; in the causative stem (hif'il), additionally in the forms ending in and ; the latter rule applies also to verbs and in all stems (except those which follow the analogy of triliteral verbs), hence , etc.; in the noun in forms with a helping vowel like (compare ), as in verbal forms like ; similarly in the dual ending ; with the so-called locative ending (with a few exceptions); in verb and noun before the suffixes ) (when preceded by [ and in forms of the type and , , hence ; similarly (in , ) and , in , before (in ), and ; in the adverbs (also ) and and those with the locative ending like and (although not uniformly); in forms (not uniformly, although with more regularity in verbs and ) when the last syllable is closed and the next to the last is open, hence , etc.; in forms of the type the accent remains on the penultimate before and (less uniformly) in all forms with an open penultimate.

Penultimate accentuation may also be due to recession ( "stepping back"), as in , that is, when a non-pausal accent (see § 4) due on the ultimate precedes a pausal accent (ibid.) due on the penultimate; the non-pausal then recedes to the penultimate (and even farther back in ) on the same conditions as the secondary accent if the two words were hyphenated (see below); in point of fact, the non-pausal is intended as a substitute for the secondary accent (see § 4); the rule, however, is not followed consistently (see Jos. Wijnkoop, "Darke ha-Nesiga, sive Leges de Accentus Hebraicæ Linguæ Ascensione," Leyden, 1881; also in Hebrew, , Amsterdam). Finally, penultimate accentuation is due to recession in pause, that is, when the accent is a pausal one, , less often , etc.; in ; in verbal forms ending in and , hence , etc.; also in ; in forms like (for the non-pausal forms ); before the suffix , hence , etc.; in adverbs and participles, for example, . Conversely, the pausal accent may bring about ultimate accentuation as in .

Secondary Accent ().

Properly, the secondary accent is due upon the second syllable from the main accent, provided the intervening syllable is long, that is, open with a long vowel, closed with a short vowel, or opened, that is, originally closed, with a short vowel: . The syllable receiving the secondary accent must also be long (open with a long vowel, opened with a short vowel: ; with a closed syllable the sign is implied, but never expressed: ). When the syllable preceding the main accent is overlong, that is, closed with a long vowel, the secondary accent will be placed there: (imperative) and similar instances, owing to a retarded pronunciation of ō which is thus raised to å Similarly, the secondary accent will fall upon the syllable preceding the main accent when it is long (open with a long vowel, opened with a short vowel) and the syllable bearing the main accent is a compound one, that is, consists of an ordinary (simple) syllable preceded by a consonant and an incompletely reduced vowel (a ), or by a consonant and a completely reduced vowel (a vocal ) at the beginning of a word; neither combination is capable of forming a syllable by itself, nor may it be joined in speech to the preceding syllable: . When a word is long enough, another subsidiary accent may become necessary; it is placed at the same distance from the secondary accent as the latter from the main accent, and upon the same conditions (the one to the right being the stronger): , . When the second syllable from the main accent is closed (with a short vowel) and the syllable next preceding is open, the secondary accent is placed upon the latter, the interval between the two accents thus exceeding the limit of one syllable: (observe that pre-fixed never takes a secondary accent).

Distinct from the in the cases just mentioned (also in all forms of the verbs and in which the guttural closes a syllable with a short vowel, for instance, ), which the Hebrew grammarians term "light ," is the so-called "heavy " which is found, on certain conditions, with closed syllables containing a short vowel (, , etc.), or (in Psalms, Proverbs, Job) with reduced vowels (vocal , , and so on). A third kind which does not concern us here at all is the so-called "euphonic." See Gesenius-Kautzsch, "Hebrew Grammar" (Clarendon Press edition), § 16, 2; Stade, "Hebräische Grammatik," §§ 53-56; both rest upon S. Baer, "Die Methegsetzung," in Merx's "Archiv für Wissenschaftliche Erforschung des A. T.," 1867, pp. 56 et seq.; 1868, pp. 194 et seq., also in Latin in his edition of Proverbs. The accent is often an aid to sense, especially in words similar in sound, but different in meaning, as "he drank," "she put"; "Rachel is coming," "Rachel came." Similarly, the ; compare , "they will fear" and "they will see," etc.

Use of Hyphen.

Small words of frequent occurrence, as the mono-syllabic prepositions and conjunctions (, ), the words , , also , are, as a rule, joined to the following (long) word. Not only two, but three, and even four, words may be hyphenated thus: , . On the other hand, a long word will occasionally be joined to a following small word: . There is always a close syntactical relation between the hyphenated words. Indeed, in every union of words, sense and rhythm are equal determining factors.

Place of Sentence-Accent.

4. The verse () is adopted as sense-unit. It is certainly the natural unit in the poetical portions of the Bible in accordance with the Rhythm of Parallelism. It is there equally natural to divide the verse into two halves. Accordingly, in a part of the recently discovered fragments of the Hebrew text of Ecclesiasticus, each verse occupies two short lines (stichs) running across the page; for example:

The Song of Moses (Deuteronomy 32) is still arranged in this fashion in the Scrolls and in the ordinary editions of the Hebrew Bible.

Determination of Accent.

Elsewhere the VERSE-DIVISION is an arbitrary, though convenient, innovation which was not permitted to penetrate into the Scrolls (the sign, marking the end of a verse, must be kept out of them; see Soferim, 3:7). The whole of the Bible was to be read according to a rhythmical swing which even in the poetical compositions is largely determined by sense. The traditional verse, as a glance at the English Bible will show, does not always coincide with our period; nor is it always of the same length. For purposes of accentuation each verse must be dealt with separately. The problem is invariably: given a verse, determine the accentuation. The leading principle of the system is halving (extended from the poetical portions to the rest of the Bible). Each verse is divided into two parts not necessarily equal; these parts are each divided into two other parts; this process is continued until an indivisible complex of words is reached. The greater pauses are regulated by sense. Frequently, however, the logical pause is sacrificed to rhetorical effect. A characteristic deviation from the accepted method of punctuation consists in passing over introductory clauses or phrases which are treated as a subordinate part of what follows; for example, "And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters" (Genesis 1:6). The lesser pauses obey the laws of syntactical construction, which are obviously various in different languages. The English sentence "And the earth was waste and void" properly reads in Hebrew: "And the earth—it was waste and void"; hence there will be a pause in Hebrew after "and the earth." The order of words differs also. Compare the very opening of the Bible in Hebrew and in English. Rhetorical effect makes itself felt in connection with the smaller no less than in the case of the greater pauses. Thus, for the sake of emphasis, the pause may be shifted from one place to another; or it may be introduced within a group of words which is properly indivisible. In general, greater latitude is permissible in dealing with the slighter pauses. Individual taste will there play an important part. Rhythm is another factor. A group must consist of more than two words to admit of a marked pause within it. When thus the stops have been properly distributed in a verse, our next task is to indicate both the presence and the absence of a pause by the corresponding signs (accents). The accents are either pausal ( "stops") or non-pausal ( "servants," servi). The notation differs in Job, Proverbs, Psalms (; hence, ) from that employed in the other (twenty-one) books (). The two systems must be treated separately, that of the three books first.

A.

List of Accents.

Pausal: "cessation"), "ascending and descending"), "rest"), "rhomb"), gereshatum [see below]"), "water-channel"), postpositive, "thrust back"), prepositive, "shake" or "trill"), (great "chain"), and and "by itself"), that is, pausal (for the meaning of and see below).

Non-pausal: "lengthening"), ( "laboring, heavy, slow"), "going on," that is, not pausing), "settled," that is, unvarying in its tone), "placed above"), "turned round"; the older form was "wheel"; the older form was (little , ), pretonic. The names, it will be observed, are derived from the musical value or from the form of the accents. Other names are met with; but those given are the most common. The diagram printed above will be employed to illustrate the use of the various signs.

1. The proper measure of a poetical verse is two short lines (a distich or couplet). Such is the form of an ordinary verse in Proverbs. The main cesura is then marked by . But frequently, as in Psalms, a verse will contain three short lines (a tristich or triplet; that is, rhythm is sacrificed to sense); or a verse may contain four short lines (a tetrastich or quatrain; that is, two rhythmical verses making one sense-verse); or a verse, not necessarily long, may be trisected purely for reasons of sense or for the sake of oratorical emphasis. The main cesura will then be marked by (a stronger ), while will be reserved for the secondary cesura (that is, the one between and ). In the diagram the three by no means coordinate sections of the verse are designated by the letters A, B, and C. In a short verse, therefore, drop A, and retain B and C. In a still shorter verse (one consisting of but one short line), drop A and B, and retain C. This principle applies equally to the smaller sections on the diagram (that is, those limited by a pausal accent), the beginning of which may be lopped off to suit varying lengths.There will be found in the sixth word from and farther; it will be replaced by occasionally in the fifth, and almost always in the fourth word; is never used farther to the left is replaced by always in the first, occasionally also in the second, word (see note 19).
2. (for , .
3. The main cesura in section A is marked by ; when a second cesura becomes necessary, is repeated. Observe, in general, that whenever an accent is repeated, the one farther to the left is the weaker. Between and there must be no word (in which case is called little ) or at least two words (then we have great ). Two s must equally be separated by at least two words. When becomes impossible, takes its place. The shortest measure of section A is two words; a cesura is always required.
4. The servus of is (or , when properly the hyphen should be employed; or , that is, with a ). This may occur in the same word with (in place of the light ).Here , "cutting off," "separating," is a line similar to the one used with and . It occurs (a) before or after the divine name "to prevent its being joined, in the reading, to a word which—in the opinion of the accentuators—it was not seemly to bring into contact with it"; (b) between two words of which the first ends in the same letter with which the second begins; (c) elsewhere, to mark an emphatic intonation. In all these cases, introduces a slight pause after a non-pausal accent.
5. In the section limited by great (great 's section), the main cesura is marked by (rarely by ) and the secondary cesura by . When only one cesura is required, it is marked by (that is, the section is cut off); but is found in exceptional cases, and necessarily, when two servi are introduced (see note 12). Sections of two words may and may not have a cesura. If required, it will, of course, be marked by . The shortest measure is one word.
6. Great never has more than one servus, which is (exceptionally ; particularly when another precedes). When a pausal accent ( or ) precedes, it is , but when an open syllable directly (that is, no intervening) precedes the tone-syllable; these accents may appear in the same word with great taking the place of light ).
7. Sections of two words will occasionally have a cesura; it is omitted in the case of small words standing at the beginning of the section and accented on the first syllable, unless emphasis is desired. The cesura in little 's section is marked by . The shortest measure of little 's section is one word.
8. Little may have two servi, (or ); or one servus, . The two servi () appear occasionally in the same word (when the syllable immediately preceding the tone is open); but this rule is not always obeyed.
9. The cesura in 's section is marked by the same accent, and is dependent upon the same conditions as the cesura in little 's section (see note 7). A secondary cesura is seldom required; the accent marking the main cesura will then be repeated. The shortest measure of 's section is one word.
10. may have two servi, (e., when the tone falls on the second letter and farther; when on the first); or one servus, (it may appear instead of light in the same word with ) (or ). In a few instances three servi are found: .
11. , when a servus precedes; or when the tone falls on the third syllable or farther; in all other cases, (the latter always between and ).
12. There is no cesura in 's section. Its shortest measure is one word. Except in two instances, has never more than one servus, , when the tone is on the first syllable (but in two instances in the place of the hyphen); or on the second when it is simple and the first syllable is a simple closed one without heavy when the condition mentioned in note 6 is fulfilled; in all other cases (but in a few instances where the or preceding the tone-syllable is abnormal). Two servi: in the place of a hyphen.
13. The rules for the division of 's section are the same as those laid down for great (see note 5).
14. has properly only one servus, , when the tone is on the first syllable; when on any other syllable (but ; also exceptionally in two places; in one of them two consecutive 's are found); always when under a dageshed letter, except in three places, where is found again. Exceptionally two servi are found: ; the first is properly in the place of a hyphen; once we find , where again the first is in the place of a hyphen.
15. The main cesura in section B is marked by ; for a second cesura, will be repeated; and so on. The s may follow each other closely. Properly, between and at least two words should intervene. This must always be the case when marks a subordinate cesura; otherwise an interval of one word is frequently sufficient. When becomes impossible or undesirable, takes its place. The interval between and must never exceed one word. is frequently found in the second word from . It is found in the first only when 's word is long; that is, when the tone-syllable therein is preceded by at least two syllables, or by one syllable, provided it is the bearer of a secondary accent (see § 3); otherwise gives way to a servus. The shortest measure of B is two words (except after ,when one word is sufficient). Sections of two words may and may not have a cesura.
16. should properly never have more than one servus. In all cases where two or more servi are found the servus immediately preceding is a substitute for (see note 15). Three servi: (but , e., when the tone is on the third syllable; or on the second syllable when the first syllable is overlong; when the condition mentioned in note 6 is fulfilled; in all other cases). In three instances takes the place of the middle servus; it is preceded by and followed by (when the tone is due on the first syllable) or by (when the usual condition is fulfilled). Two servi: (but ). One servus: after (but ); in all other cases. More than three servi are found in three instances: in one occupies the second place before ; in the others the multiplication of servi is due to the resolution of hyphenated words.
17. Theoretically, marks the main, and the secondary cesura in 's section; but 's section is usually too short to require two cesuras. One expects to be the accent where only one cesura is required. Such is frequently the case. But is employed when the section in front of the cesura must itself be bisected, or when the pausal accent requires two servi before it (in either case is out of the question; see note 12); sometimes (in three instances) for no apparent reason ( and are so nearly alike in pausal force that occasionally one is placed for the other). Between and there must be at least one word. Otherwise gives way to a servus. The shortest measure of 's section is one word. Sections of two words, of course, have no cesura. The cesura fails likewise in the case of small words standing at the beginning of the section and accented on the first syllable, unless emphasis is desired. The foregoing rules remain in force, even when gives way to a servus (see note 15).
18. should properly never have more than one servus: (it may be found, instead of light , in the same word with only when the syllable preceding the tone-syllable is overlong and has α or ō for its vowel). When two servi appear, the one adjoining ) is a substitute for (see note 17), while the one farther to the left is 's servus (see note 12): . Once three servi are found: ; takes the place of a hyphen.
19. The main cesura in section C is marked by ; the secondary cesura by . When only one cesura is required, should properly mark it. However, is employed (the two accents are presumably regarded as of equal force; see, for a similar substitution, note 17). Between and there must be at least one word. When is due in the word immediately preceding , it is replaced by a servus, . Another servus, , may be placed in the next preceding word. This necessitates a further change: (marking the main cesura), which does not permit immediately after it, and is transformed into . may be found in the word adjoining only when 's word is long; otherwise gives way to a servus. This may necessitate a further change: when the word adjoining is itself short (that is, with only one syllable, which is not the bearer of a secondary accent, before the accented syllable); , when due on the next preceding word, is replaced by . The shortest measure of C is one word. But does not permit immediately before it; the latter accent will then be replaced by , the other accents remaining the same as before . Sections of two words have a cesura, provided the last word is of sufficient length to permit before it (see above).
20. should properly never have more than one servus. In all cases where two or more servi are found, the servus immediately preceding is a substitute for (see note 19). Three servi: , that is, and upon the same conditions as before (see note 16); where is used before will be employed here. Two servi: ; but may take the place of light in the same word with (provided that does not precede; see note 19); in a few places the servi are altogether irregular. One servus: (when the tone is on the first syllable; but ), (when on any other syllable), or (after ). In a few instances four servi are found.

First Four Verses of Pslam

21. There is no cesura in 's section. Its shortest measure is one word. Except in a few instances, has never more than two servi. Three servi: or according to the usual rule); in three passages: and . Two servi: . One servus: . The servi of are the same as those of .As an illustration of the application of the above diagram and rules to concrete cases, the first four verses of Psalm are given above. The cesuras are indicated as in the diagram; the figures refer to the notes.

The verse from Ecclesiasticus quoted above would be accented as follows:

B.

List of Accents.

Pausal: "cluster of grapes"), post-positive, and (great and little "upright"), "handbreadth," or (, "scatterer"), postpositive, "stretching out"), postpositive, ( "resting"), prepositive, "broken"), "expulsion"), "double (great (great "drawing out"), —that is ).—Non-pausal: , (double "trill"), (little

1. The verse may be of varying length. In a long verse marks the main cesura. The two sections are designated in the diagram by the letters A and B. In a short verse drop A and retain B. The shortest measure of a verse is two words. The cesura never fails.'s proper place is in the fifth word from and farther; when due in the fourth and farther to the left, it may be replaced by or (in accordance with the rules laid down for the position of those accents in note 2); the substitution is common in short verses; it necessarily takes place in verses of three or two words; in the first word before (even in a long verse), is rarely used (except in cases of a marked logical pause).
2. The main cesura in A is marked by ; the second by ; for every following cesura is repeated until the last is reached, which is marked by Between and at least three words must intervene; but the proper place is at a considerable distance from . Between and there must be at least one word. When 's word and the one adjoining it are both short the distance between and must amount to two words. When becomes impossible takes its place. In a few instances where the two words immediately preceding are very short, that is, mono-syllables, and properly subject to hyphenation, is found in the third word; this is its utmost limit to the right. The shortest measure of A is one word. Sections of two words always have a cesura.
3. 's servus is (which is repeated in the few instances which call for a second servus; see note 2). In a few instances is found in the same word with ; grammarians incorrectly call it a servus ( "inclined").
4. The main cesura in 's section is marked by , which is repeated for every following cesura until the last is reached, which is marked by . Between and there must be at least one word. When 's word or the one adjoining is long, is admissible in the second word, but is not necessary. When becomes impossible or undesirable, takes its place. is comparatively rare in the third word; this is its utmost limit to the right. The shortest measure of 's section is two words. The cesura never fails. When only one word is available takes the place of .
5. Between two 's there must be at least three words. When the interval is shorter the one to the left is transformed into ; the change does not affect the next to the left, which always maintains its position, there being a sufficiently long interval between it and the preceding it. Between and or there must be at least two words; otherwise is transformed into or . But may precede another ; this is the only case in which two 's may come together.
6. may have one or two servi, both 's.
7. The main cesura in 's section is marked by , which is repeated for every following cesura until a point is reached when is inadmissible or undesirable (see below); then it gives way to ; the next cesura is marked by ; then comes which may be repeated. Between and there must be at least four words. It is rarely found in the fourth word. It necessarily replaces there when the next cesura is due immediately before then becomes unavailable (see below), and takes its place (that is, 's section is obliterated); the interval between and must never exceed one word; otherwise and (the servus due in the second word before ; see note 13) would come together, and, on musical grounds, the two accents can not come together without a pausal accent between them. In a few instances takes the place of in the fourth or third word for no apparent reason. Between and there must be at least two words; it is found in the second only when the two next following words are both long; its utmost limit appears to be the fifth or sixth word (where it replaces for the main cesura). When becomes unavailable it gives way to . Between the latter and there need be no interval; its utmost limit is the fourth word. Between and there must be at least one word; it is found in the first only in the place of ( (that is, ) when the latter sign is due before (strangely enough, the notation remains the same); its utmost limit appears to be the third word. In a section consisting of only three words may take the place of in the second word. The shortest measure of 's section is one word. Sections of two words may or may not have a cesura; the cesura is likely to occur when the last word is long, but it is not necessary even then. The cesura may be left out also in sections of three words provided it is due immediately before .
   
   In the twenty-one books is especially employed to mark a stop in long sections limited by , or , for the subdivision of which by means of pausal accents there exists no provision in the accentual system; or to mark a stop immediately before , or neither nor being available (see note 15)
8. 8.