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Wagtail (Bird)

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WAGTAIL ( Wagsterd and Wagstyrt, 15th century fide T. Wright, Vol. Vocabularies, ii. 22r, 2 53; Uuagtale, Turner, 1 544, p. 53), the popular name for birds of the subfamily Motacillinae, which, together with the Anthinae (see Pipit), form the passerine family Motacillidae. The pied wagtail Motacilla lugubris is a common and generally distributed species in the British Islands, and common throughout northern Europe, but migrating southwards over a relatively narrow range in winter. The white wagtail, M. alba of Linnaeus, has a wide range in Europe, Asia and Africa, visiting England almost yearly, and chiefly differing from the ordinary British in its lighter-coloured tints - the cock especially having a clear grey instead of a black back. Three other species occur in England, but the subfamily with several genera and very many species ranges over the Old World, except Australia and Polynesia, whilst the Asiatic species reach North-West America.

Wagtails are generally parti-coloured birds, frequenting streams and stagnant water, and feeding on seeds, insects, worms, small molluscs and crustaceans. The bill is thin and elongated, and the tail is very long. The nests are made of moss, grass and roots, with a lining of hair and feathers; four to six eggs are laid, bluish white or brown, or yellowish with spots and markings.

The genus Motacilla (an exact rendering of the English "wagtail," the Dutch Kwikstaart, the Italian Codatremola and other similar words), which, as originally founded by Linnaeus, contained nearly all the "soft-billed" birds of early English ornithologists, was restricted by various authors in succession, following the example set by Scopoli in 1769, until none but the wagtails remained in it. (A. N.) Wahhabis, a Mahommedan sect, the followers of Ibn `Abd ul-Wahhab, who instituted a great reform in the religion of Islam in Arabia in the 18th century. Mahommed ibn `Abd ulWahhab was born in 1691 (or 1703) at al-IIauta of the Nejd in central Arabia, and was of the tribe of the Bani Tamim. He studied literature and jurisprudence of the Hanifite school. After making the pilgrimage with his father, he spent some further time in the study of law at Medina, and resided for a while at Isfahan, whence he returned to the Nejd to undertake the work of a teacher. Aroused by his studies and his observation of the luxury in dress and habits, the superstitious pilgrimages to shrines, the use of omens and the worship given to Mahomet and Mahommedan saints rather than to God, he began a mission to proclaim the simplicity of the early religion founded on the Koran and Sunna (i.e. the manner of life of Mahomet). His mission in his own district was not attended by success, and for long he wandered with his family through Arabia, until at last he settled in Dara`iyya, or Deraiya (in the Nejd), where he succeeded in converting the great notable, Mahommed ibn Saud, who married his daugther, and so became the founder of an hereditary Wahhabite dynasty. This gave the missionary the opportunity of following the example of Mahomet himself in extending his religious teaching by force. His instructions in this matter were strict. All unbelievers (i.e. Moslems who did not accept his teaching, as well as Christians, &c.) were to be put to death. Immediate entrance into Paradise was promised to his soldiers who fell in battle, and it is said that each soldier was provided with a written order from Ibn `Abd ul-Wahhab to the gate-keeper of heaven to admit him forthwith. In this way the new teaching was established in the greater part of Arabia until its power was broken by Mehemet Ali (see Arabia: History). Ibn `Abd ul-Wahhab is said to have died in 1791.

The teaching of ul-Wahhab was founded on that of Ibn Taimiyya (1263-1328), who was of the school of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Copies of some of Ibn Taimiyya's works made by ul-Wahhab are now extant in Europe, and show a close study of the writer. Ibn Taimiyya, although a Hanbalite by training, refused to be bound by any of the four schools, and claimed the power of a mujtahid, i.e. of one who can give independent decisions. These decisions were based on the Koran, which, like Ibn Hazm, he accepted in a literal sense, on the Sunna and Qiyas (analogy). He protested strongly against all the innovations of later times, and denounced as idolatry the visiting of the sacred shrines and the invocation of the saints or of Mahomet himself. He was also a bitter opponent of the Sufis of his day. The Wahhabites also believe in the literal sense of the Koran and the necessity of deducing one's duty from it apart from the decisions of the four schools. They also pointed to the abuses current in their times as a reason for rejecting the doctrines and practices founded on Ijma `, i.e. the universal consent of the believer or their teachers (see Mahommedan Religion). They forbid the pilgrimage to tombs and the invocation of saints. The severe simplicity of the Wahhabis has been remarked by travellers in central Arabia. They attack all luxury, loose administration of justice, all laxity against infidels, addiction to wine, impurity and treachery. Under `Abd ulAziz they instituted a form of Bedouin (Bedawi) commonwealth, insisting on the observance of law, the payment of tribute, military conscription for war against the infidel, internal peace and the rigid administration of justice in courts established for the purpose.

It is clear that the claim of the Wahhabis to have returned to the earliest form of Islam is largely justified; Burckhardt (vol. ii. p. 112) says, "The only difference between his (i.e. ulWahhab's) sect and orthodox Turks, however improperly so termed, is that the Wahabys rigidly follow the same laws which the others neglect or have ceased altogether to observe." Even orthodox doctors of Islam have confessed that in Ibn `Abd ul-Wahhab's writings there is nothing but what they themselves hold. At the same time the fact that so many of his followers were rough and unthinking Bedouins has led to the over-emphasis of minor points of practice, so that they often appear to observers to be characterized chiefly by a strictness (real or feigned) in such matters as the prohibition of silk for dress, or the use of tobacco, or of the rosary in prayer.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. -J. L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys (2 vols., London, 1831); A. Chodzko, "Le Deisme des ti'ahhabis" in the Journal asiatique, series iv. vol. xi. pp. 168 ff; I. Goldziher in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, vol. lii. pp. 156-157 (1898); D. B. Macdonald, Muslim Theology (London, 1903). (G. W. T.)