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Bible Encyclopedias
Manoel II
1911 Encyclopedia Britannica
or "MANOEL II., ex-King of Portugal (1889-), was born at Lisbon Nov. 15 1889, the younger son of Carlos I. by his wife Marie Amelie of Orleans. On the assassination of King Carlos and of the crown prince Luis, Duke of Braganza, Feb. 1 1908, Dom Manoel succeeded to the throne of Portugal, but he only retained it for a short time, as the revolution of Oct. 3 1910 forced him to fly the country. He took refuge with his mother in England, and finally settled at Fulwell Park, Twickenham. On Sept. 4 1913 he was married at Sigmaringen to Princess Augusta Victoria of Hohenzollern (b. Aug. 19 1890), daughter of Prince Wilhelm of Hohenzollern. Dom Manoel supported the Portuguese royalist risings of 1911 and 1912, and in the latter year met the pretender to the Portuguese throne, Dom Miguel, at Dover in order to concert a common plan of action. On the outbreak of the World War, however, he appealed to all classes of his former subjects to lay aside political feelings and unite against the common enemy.
MAP 17.629). - Steady progress was made in all branches of map construction until the outbreak of the World War, which had the natural effect of stopping or hindering peace-time activities amongst the principal belligerent Powers. The war had another effect, also, in that its special character on the western front resulted in the demand for a type of map not hitherto in general use in warlike operations. With regard to normal geographical and topographical maps a useful landmark was the publication in 1908 by the U.S. Geological Survey of an excellent book on the Interpretation of Topographic Forms. As to the historical and technical aspects of the subject there have been some interesting contributions to the history of cartography and to the study of map projections.
In connexion with the war two matters stand out as deserving of particular attention: the revival and standardization of the International Map of the World, and the striking progress made in the few years immediately preceding the war with the mapping of the British Empire. The recent history of the surveys of the non-belligerent countries and of most of the belligerent Powers prior to Aug. 1914 is chiefly a record of steady advance along accepted lines ( see Survey). It will, therefore, be sufficient to deal here mainly with three matters: the International Map of the World, war maps, and the mapping of the British Empire.
International Map of the World
The official title of this international undertaking is" Carte du Monde au Millionieme,"and it is under this title that references to it will generally be found. It owes its origin to the initiative of Prof. A. Penck, who put forward the project of a map of the world on a uniform scale at the Geographical Congress held at Berne in 1891. The scale proposed was one-millionth of nature, equivalent to 1 km. to 1 mm., or 15.78 m. to 1 in. The scheme and the scale were accepted by the Congress, and an international, but unofficial, committee was appointed for the purpose of prosecuting the idea. This committee reported to successive Geographical Congresses held in London in 1895, in Berlin in 1899, and in Washington in 1904, but not very much progress was made. An important step was, however, taken at the Geographical Congress held at Geneva in 1908. At this Congress the delegates of the United States made a proposal for the definite standardization of the map and for the drawing-up of fixed rules to govern its production. The next step in its history is that the Geographical Section of the British General Staff took up the subject, and a promise was given at the Geneva Congress that, if possible, an official conference should be assembled to deal with the matter. This promise was carried into effect in the following year.
In Nov. 1909 an official conference assembled at the Foreign Office in London, on the invitation of the British Government, and was opened by Sir Charles Hardinge, the Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. The countries represented were, in addition to Great Britain, Australia, Austria, Austria-Hungary, Hungary, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Russia, the United States, i.e. the British Empire and the other European and American Great Powers. The Conference came to unanimous conclusions, and an account of it was published in a report issued by the British Government.
The object of having an official, rather than a non-official, or academic, conference was that experience had shown that without the support of the official map-making bodies, such as the great survey departments, little or nothing would be done in the way of actually producing the international sheets. The scale is somewhat too large for ordinary use in atlases, though it is somewhat smaller than the survey departments had been in the habit of printing.
One of the chief features of usefulness in the scale of i to 1,000,000 is that it enables the globe to be covered by a reasonable number of sheets, 2,084 sheets sufficing to represent the entire surface, land and water. If the next largest ordinary metric scale had been chosen (1 to 500,000), no less than 8,336 sheets would have been required. Another valuable feature is that the scale serves very well as a base scale for atlas maps, which are generally somewhat smaller. Again, it is not too small for the display of all the main natural and artificial features of a country; in fact, it is admirable for general official purposes, so much so that the provisional editions of this map were used at the Peace Conference at Paris in 1919 for the deciding of the general lines of the new international frontiers. Its uses are many and will grow as the map covers the earth. It will become the geographer's standard referen-e map. The sheets put together would cover the surface of a globe about 42 ft. in diameter.
At the Geographical Congress at Rome in the spring of 1913 the scheme as formulated in London was accepted generally, but there was a feeling that a more comprehensive official conference was needed in order to put the matter before those countries not hitherto represented officially. Accordingly, after some correspondence between the British and French Governments, it was agreed that the latter should issue invitations to an official conference to be held in Paris in Dec. 1913. This conference took place under the presidency of General Bourgeois; thirty-four States sent representatives and a very thorough examination was made of the London resolutions and of any proposed modifications. In the main the London resolutions were accepted, and the modifications made were not in matters of principle but of detail. The scheme had in fact got into a definite standard form, and the" Carte du Monde au Millionieme "is now a world undertaking on lines accepted by practically all the countries of the world.
The authoritative version of the resolutions is to be found in a printed report by the Service Geographique de l'Armee (Paris 1914), entitled Carte du Monde au Millionieme, Comptes Rendus des Seances de la Deuxieme Conf'rence Internationa'e, Paris, Decembre 1913, with a supplementary volume containing illustrative plates.
The following are the principal resolutions in conformity with which the sheets of the International Map are produced: Each sheet of the map covers an area of four degrees in lat. by six in long., except that north of lat. 60 it shall by permissible to join two or more adjoining sheets of the same zone, so that the combined sheet covers 12, 18, etc., degrees of long. But the ordinary sheet, as stated above, will cover 24 square degrees." The meridian of Greenwich is the initial meridian and the limiting meridians of the sheets are at successive intervals (reckoning from Greenwich) of six degrees, and the limiting parallels (reckoning from the Equator) are at intervals of four degrees.
Each sheet is described by a letter N. or S., indicating northern or southern hemisphere; another letter for the zone in which it is, the zones being lettered from A to V extending from the Equator to 88' lat.; and a number to indicate the sector, the sectors being numbered from long. 180° E. or W. of Greenwich from 1 to 60, increasing in an easterly direction. Thus the sheet which contains Paris is N.M. 31, as shown on Plate I.
The map is plotted on a slightly modified polyconic projection, each sheet being projected independently. The lettering is to be in varieties of the Latin characters. An important resolution refers to the spelling of place names. It reads thus: "In independent or selfgoverning countries, in which the Latin alphabet is in habitual, or alternative, use, the s p elling of the place names shall follow authorized custom. The spelling of place names in a colony, protectorate, or possession shall be that of the authorized transliteration into Latin characters in use in the governing country, provided that in the latter the Latin alphabet is in habitual, or alternative, use." The heights are shown by contours at vertical intervals of 100 metres reckoning from mean sea-level. When these would be too crowded some may be omitted, but the 200, 500, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000, 3,000, etc., contours must always be shown. "The map shall be a hypsometric map, i.e. the successive altitudes shall be indicated by a system of colour tints. There may, however, be published other editions without altitude tints." There are other technical regulations, such as those dealing with the sizes of the lettering, the boundaries, scales (a scale of km. is compulsory), sea-bed contours, all devised to ensure uniformity, and there is a diagram of conventional signs to be followed.
The regulations appear to be admirably adapted for the purpose in view, and in a few years' time it should be quite a natural thing for a traveller or business man to ask for a sheet of the international map of the region in which he intends to travel. For students of geography or history this series, covering the world with maps on a uniform plan, will be indispensable.
In the printing of sheets of the map, perhaps the most difficult matter is to ensure that the hypsometric, or "layer," tints, which show the successive altitudes of the terrain, shall be strictly in accordance with the agreed system. To assist in this the resolutions are accompanied by a detailed diagram in colour, which serves to show the exact shade of each colour printing.
The Paris Conference, in addition to passing the very practi cal resolutions described above, took an important step in approving of the establishment of a "Bureau Permanent," comprising a central office to be located at the headquarters of the Ordnance Survey at Southampton, with a branch office in London. The functions of the Bureau are: the publication of an annual report on the progress of the scheme; the organization of a service of exchange of information; and the criticism, when desired, of proofs, drawings or impressions. Of these functions the first two are the most important. The branch, or auxiliary, office in London is the Royal Geographical Society, where visitors to London can obtain all information with regard to the International Map and its progress. The Director-General of the Ordnance Survey is ex-o f ficio Director of the Bureau.
The Paris Conference came to an end on Dec. 18 1913, but the Report of this Conference was not published when war broke out early in Aug. 1914. The effect of the war on the scheme was twofold. First, it resulted in the immediate cessation of all work on the map so far as the belligerent countries were concerned; but in the second place it led to a demand for maps on, or about, the one-to-a-million scale, and so in England and France, particularly the former, much official cartography was carried out on the million scale, and a large series of maps was produced by the initiative of the General Staff. The General Staff series of maps was for the most part designed by a special staff of experts at the Royal Geographical Society, and was fair-drawn and printed by the Ordnance Survey. It adheres to the sheet lines and projection of the International Map and to a good many of the conventions, but it is not hypsometrically coloured, and from the nature of the case is somewhat roughly produced. It is, however, an important series and comprises ninety maps extending from the Persian Gulf to the Arctic Ocean, and from the western shores of Ireland to beyond the Caspian Sea. Covering as it does so important a part of the world's surface, it is of value to geography on account of its uniformity and general accuracy.
A high compliment was paid to this series when its sheets were selected by the Peace Conference for use in determining the new European frontiers, and the Geographical Section of the British General Staff is to be congratulated on its foresight in arranging for its preparation. It differs from the regular international series, not only in small technical details, but also in the fact that the sheets were produced by one country and not by the countries represented; it is an essential element in the construction of the regular series that each country produces its own sheets, and where a sheet includes portions .of two or more countries the sheet will be undertaken by one of them, after agree ment with the others.
The International Map, so rudely interrupted by the war, has since been taken up again, and satisfactory progress has continued to be made.
At the close of 1920 maps were in hand, or had been published, by the following countries: Brazil, Canada, Chile, Denmark, Egypt, France, Great Britain, India, Italy, Japan, Portugal, Rumania, Siam, Spain, Sweden, United States, Uruguay. Thirty-six sheets had been printed and 102 were in various stages of preparation. The main continents and islands would take about 800 sheets to cover, so that a very substantial beginning amounting to about onesixth of the full total had been made. Of course there are many parts of the world insufficiently explored for the exact information required by the regular sheets of the series, but provisional editions can be published of these sheets, and their very incompleteness will give a stimulus to exploration. The most striking group of sheets already available is that published by the Survey of India; but important blocks of sheets were, at the opening of 1921, due for early issue by the United States Geological Survey (which carries out most of the official cartography of the United States), and by Brazil and other States of South America.
' War Maps. - The trench warfare of 1914-8 in France and Belgium created a demand for maps on a larger scale than had hitherto been in general use by great armies. Before the war, for instance, the French had been content with the black Carte de l'etat major on the scale of 1: 80,000, for the new map on the scale of 1:50,000, of which very few sheets have been printed, was evidently not taken very seriously as a military map. On the outbreak of war, in Aug. 1914, the only map of N.E. France available for the French and British armies was this 1: 80,000 map, except that for certain areas round fortresses there existed the so-called " plans directeurs" on the scale of 1: 20,000. In Belgium the cartographic situation was much better. Belgium was covered by an excellent series of maps, based on field surveys and original drawings on the scale of 1:10,000. The published Belgian maps were on the scales of 1: 20,000, I: 40,000, 1:100,000 and I: 160,000. The Germans, however, also possessed these maps, so that the Allied armies had no advantage in this respect. An immediate effect of the rapid stabilizing of the position on the Franco-Belgian front was that large-scale maps became indispensable for the operations of trench warfare, particularly in connexion with the use of artillery.
With regard to that portion of the line which passed through N.E. France all that could at first be done was to enlarge the 1: 80,000 to 1: 20,000. Of course such an enlargement made an unreliable map, with errors of hundreds of metres, and, bit by bit, these enlargements were corrected. But the mere correction of inaccurate enlargements can never make a reliable map, and eventually all the maps of the western front were redrawn from special surveys, air photographs and revised cadastral manuscripts. The methods are described in the article Survey. It is sufficient to note here that the chief scales in use were those of 1: 20,000 and 1:40,000; that the former scale showed the enemy's trench system in detail, and that all the maps were provided with a system of "squares," or coordinates, which enabled any point to be defined within a few metres. The use of "squares," or coordinates, is typical of modern military maps. An example of a typical trench map of the western front on the scale of 1: 20,000 is shown on Plate II. The number of maps issued to the troops was very large, greatly exceeding all previous anticipations. The Ordnance Survey alone printed 32 millions of trench and other war maps during the four years and three months that the war lasted, and to this must be added the maps printed by the survey battalions in the field. Altogether the British armies in France and Belgium used some forty million maps.
The Progress of Cartography
A very noticeable feature of all modern topographical maps is the increasing use of colour. The old, black, engraved maps are disappearing one by one. But however beautiful these maps were as specimens of engraving, they were never very easy to read, and in no case did they convey so much, or such accurate, information as do the modern topographical maps printed in five or six colours. However artistic a black, hachured map may be it is far less exact in the representation of hill forms than a coloured, contoured map. But it is doubtful how long the modern coloured map will last; the paper is not nearly so durable as that which is used for the printing of copper-engraved maps; and the colours are in some cases none too permanent. Perhaps in some cases in which the maps are kept in dry presses away from the light they may last for a hundred years or so; but our remote descendants can hardly be expected to see, in anything but a very decayed state, the present triumphs of cartography. These remarks apply with special force to the "layered" maps; changes in the tones of the layers will greatly alter their character.
Topographical Maps
The following remarks are necessary to bring up to date the account of topographical maps given in 17.649. Such progress as has been made since 1910 was made chiefly before, or after, the war, and not during it.
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