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Bible Encyclopedias
Jean Francois de Saint-Lambert
1911 Encyclopedia Britannica
or JEAN FRANCCOIS DE SAINT-LAMBERT (1716-1803), French poet, was born at Nancy on the 26th of December 1716. He entered the army and, when Stanislaus Leszczynski was established in 1737 as duke of Lorraine, he became an official at his court at Luneville. He left the army after the Hanoverian campaign of 1756-57, and devoted himself to literature, producing a volume of descriptive verse, Les Saisons (1769), now never read, many articles for the Encyclopedie, and some miscellaneous works. He was admitted to the Academy in 1770. His fame, however, comes chiefly from his amours. He was already high in the favour of the marquise de Boufflers, Stanislaus's mistress, whom he addressed in his verses as Doris and Themire, when Voltaire in 1748 came to Luneville with the marquise de Chatelet. Her infatuation for him and its fatal termination are known to all readers of the life of Voltaire. His subsequent liaison with Madame d'Houdetot, Rousseau's Sophie, though hardly less disastrous to his rival, continued for the whole lives of himself and his mistress. Saint-Lambert's later years were given to philosophy. He published in 1798 the Principe des me urs chez toutes les nations ou catechisme universel, and published his CEuvres philosophiques (1803), two years before his death on the 9th of February 1803. Madame d'Houdetot survived until the 28th of January 1813.
See G. Maugras, La Cour de Luneville (1904) and La Marquise de Boufers (1907); also the literature dealing with Rousseau and Voltaire.
The river St Lawrence, in North America, with the five fresh-water inland seas (see Great Lakes), Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario, forms one of the great river systems of the world, having a length, from the source of the river St Louis (which rises near the source of the river Mississippi and falls into the head of Lake Superior) to Cape Gaspe, where it empties into the Gulf of St Lawrence, of 2100 m. The river is here considered as rising at the foot of Lake Ontario, in 44° 10' N., 76° 30 W., where the name St Lawrence is first applied to it.
The river, to the point where it crosses 45° N. in its northwesterly course, forms the boundary line between the state of New York and the province of Ontario; thence to the sea it is wholly within Canadian territory, running through the province of Quebec. At Point des Monts, 260 m. below Quebec, it is 26 m. wide, and where it finally merges into the Gulf of St Lawrence, 150 m. farther on, it is 90 m. wide, this stretch being broken by the large island of Anticosti, lying fairly in the mouth. The character of the river banks varies with the geological formations through which it runs. Passing over the Archaean rocks of the Laurentian from Kingston to Brockville the shores are very irregular, and the river is broken up by protrusions of glaciated summits of the granites and gneisses into a large number of picturesque islands, "The Thousand Islands," greatly frequented as a summer resort. From Brockville to Montreal the river runs through flat-bedded Cambro-silurian limestones, with rapids at several points, which are all run by light-draught passenger boats. For the up trip the rapids are avoided by canalization. From Montreal to Three Rivers the course is through an alluvial plain over-lying the limestones, the river at one point expanding into Lake St Peter, 20 m. long by io m. wide, with a practically uniform depth of io ft. Below Three Rivers the banks grow gradually higher until, after passing Quebec through a cleft in slate rocks of Cambrian age, the river widens, washing the feet of the Laurentian Mountains on its north shore; while a more moderately hilly country, terminating in the Shickshock Mountains of the Gaspe Peninsula, skirts its south shore.
From Kingston, at the head of the river, to Montreal, a distance of 170 m., navigation is limited to vessels of 14 ft. draught by the capacity of the canals. From Montreal to Quebec, 160 m., a ship channel has been dredged to a depth of 30 ft.; below Quebec the river is tidally navigable by vessels of any draught. The canals on the St Lawrence above Montreal have been enlarged to the capacity of the Welland canal, the improved system having been opened to commerce in the autumn of 1899. Instead of enlarging the Beauharnois canal, on the south side of the river, a new canal, the "Soulanges," was built from Coteau Landing to Cascades Point, on the north side, the Beauharnois canal still being used for small barges. The locks of the enlarged canals are all 45 ft. wide, with an available depth of 14 ft. and a minimum length of 270 ft. The following table shows the canalized stretches in this portion of the river: - In the stretch between Montreal and Quebec the ship channel, begun by the Montreal Harbour Commissioners, has been assumed by the Dominion government as a national work, and improvements, involving extensive dredging, have been undertaken with the aim of securing everywhere a minimum depth of 30 ft. with a minimum width of 450 ft. The whole river from Kingston to the sea is well supplied with aids to navigation. In the dredged portions lights are arranged in pairs of leading lights on foundations sufficiently high and solid to resist the pressure of ice movement, and there is an elaborate system of fog alarms, gas-lighted and other buoys, as well as telegraphic, wireless and telephonic communication, storm signal, weather and ice reporting stations and a life-saving service.
Montreal, at the head of ocean navigation, the largest city in Canada, is an important distributing centre for all points in western Canada, and enjoys an extensive shipping trade with the United Kingdom, the sea-going shipping exceeding 1,500,000 tons, and the inland shipping approximating 2,000,000 tons, annually. Quebec is the summer port used by the largest steamers in the Canadian trade. There are numerous flourishing towns on both banks of the river, from' Kingston, a grain transferring port, to the sea. Large quantities of lumber, principally spruce (fir) and paper pulp, are manufactured at small mills along the river, and shipped over sea directly from the place of production. The mail steamers land and embark mails at Rimouski, to or from which they are conveyed by rail along the south shore.
The importance to Canada of the river St Lawrence as a national trade route cannot be over-estimated. As a natural highway between all points west of the Maritime Provinces and Europe it is unique in permitting ocean traffic to penetrate loon m. into the heart of a country. It is, moreover, the shortest freight route from the Great Lakes to Europe. From Buffalo to Liverpool via New York involves rail or 7-ft. canal transport. of 496 m. and an ocean voyage of 3034 nautical miles. Via, Montreal there is a 14-ft. transport of 348 m. and river and ocean voyage of 2772 nautical miles. From Quebec to Liverpool by Cape Race is 2801 nautical miles, while the route by Belle Isle, more nearly a great circle course, usually taken between July and October, is only 2633 nautical miles. On the other hand the St Lawrence is not open throughout the year; the average time between the arrival of the first vessel at Montreal. from sea and the departure of the last ocean vessel is seven months. From Kingston to Quebec the river freezes over every winter, except at points where the current is rapid. Below Quebec, although there is heavy border ice, the river never freezes over. For a few winters, while the bridge accommodation. at Montreal was restricted to the old single-track Victoria. bridge, railway freight trains were run across the ice bridge on temporary winter tracks. Efforts have been made to lengthen the season of navigation by using specially constructed steamers to break the ice; and it is claimed that the season of navigation could be materially lengthened, and winter floods prevented by keeping the river open to Montreal. Winter ferries are maintained at Quebec, between Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia, and between Newfoundland and Sydney, Cape Breton. In the winter of1898-1899an attempt was made to run a winter steamer from Paspebiac to England,. but it was not successful, principally because an unsuitable vessel was used.. To pass through the field of ice that is always present in the gulf, in. greater or lesser quantity, specially strengthened vessels are required.
The river above tide water is not subject to excessive flooding, the maximum rise in the spring and early summer months, chiefly from northern tributaries from the Ottawa eastward,. being 10 ft. The Great Lakes serve as impounding reservoirs for the gradual distribution of all overflows in the west. At Montreal, soon after the river freezes over each winter, there is a local rise of about 10 ft. in the level of the water in the harbour, caused by restriction of the channel by anchor ice; and in the spring of the year, when the volume of the water is augmented, this obstruction leads to a further rise, in 1886 reaching a height of 27 ft. above ordinary low water. To, prevent flooding of the lower parts of the city a dike was in 1887 built along the river front, which prevented a serious flooding in 1899.
Tides enter the Gulf of St Lawrence from the Atlantic chiefly through Cabot Strait (between Cape Breton and Newfoundland), which is 75 m. wide and 250 fathoms deep. The tide entering through Belle Isle Strait, 10 m. wide and 30 fathoms deep, is comparatively little felt. The tidal undulation, in passing through the gulf, expands. so widely as to be almost inappreciable in places, as, for example, at the Magdalen Islands, in the middle of the gulf, where the range amounts to about 3 ft. at springs, becoming effaced at neaps. There is also little more tide than this at some points on the north shore of Prince Edward Island. The greatest range is attained in Northumberland Strait and in Chaleur Bay, where it amounts to 10 ft. At the entrance to the estuary at Anticosti it has again the oceanic range of about 6 ft., and proceeds up the estuary with an everincreasing range, which attains its maximum of 19 ft. at the lower end of Orleans Island, 650 m. from the ocean at Cabot Strait. This must be considered the true head of the estuary. At Quebec, 30 m. farther up, the range is nearly as great; but at 40 m. above Quebec it is largely cut off by the Richelieu Rapids, and finally ceases to, be felt at Three Rivers, at the lower end of Lake St Peter, 760 m. from the ocean.
The St Lawrence provides ample water-power, which is being increasingly used. Its rapids have long been used for milling and factory purposes; a wing dam on the north side of Lachine Rapids furnishes electricity to Montreal; the falls of Montmorency light Quebec and run electric street cars; and from Lake Superior to the gulf there are numerous points on the tributaries to the St Lawrence where power could be used.
| Name. | From | To | Length in Miles. | Number of Locks. | Fall in Feet. | Galops.. . | Head of Galops Rapids | Iroquois | 71 | 3 | 152 | River . | 4 | Rapide Plat. . | Head of Ogden Island | Morrisburg | 33 | 2 | III | River . | 102 | . | Farran Point . | Head of Croil Island | Farran Point | I | 1 | 32 | River. . | 5 | Cornwall Canal. . | Dickinson Landing | Cornwall | 1 I | 6 | 48 | Lake St Francis . | 30 | Soulanges. . | Coteau Landing | Cascades Point | 14 | 4 | 822 | Lake St Louis . | .. | 14 | Lachine. . | Lachine | Montreal | 82 | 5 | 45 | 1092 | 21 | 206 Nearly all the rivers flowing into the St Lawrence below Quebec are stocked with salmon (Salmo salar ), and are preserved and leased to anglers by the provincial government. In the salt water of the gulf and lower river, mackerel, cod, herring, smelt, sea-trout, striped bass and other fish are caught for market. The St Lawrence is spanned by the following railway bridges: (r) A truss bridge built near Cornwall in 1900 by the New York & Ottawa railroad, now operated by the New York Central railroad. (2) A truss bridge with a swing, built in 1890 by the Canada Atlantic railway at Coteau Landing. (3) A cantilever bridge built in 1887 by the Canadian Pacific railway at Caughnawaga. (4) The Victoria Jubilee bridge, built as a tubular bridge by the Grand Trunk railway in 1860, and transformed into a truss bridge in 1897-1898. The new bridge rests on the piers of the old one, enlarged to receive it, is 6592 ft. long by 67 ft. wide, has 25 spans, double railway and trolley tracks, driveways and sidewalks, and was erected without interruption of traffic. (5) A very large cantilever bridge, having a central span of 1800 ft., crosses the river at a point 7 m. above Quebec. The southern half of the superstructure, while in course of erection in August 1907, fell, killing 78 men, and necessitating a serious delay in the completion of the work. The river St Lawrence was discovered by Jacques Cartier, commissioned by the king of France to explore and trade on the American coast. Cartier entered the strait of Belle Isle in 1534; but Breton fishermen had previously resorted there in summer and penetrated as far as Brest, eleven leagues west of Blanc Sablon, the dividing line between Quebec and Labrador. Cartier circled the whole gulf, but missed the entrance to the river. On his second voyage in 1536 he named a bay on the north shore of the gulf, which he entered on the 10th of August, the feast of St Lawrence, Baye Sainct Laurens, and the name gradually extended over the whole river, though Cartier himself always wrote of the River of Canada. Early in September, he reached "Canada," now Quebec, and on the 2nd of October reached Hochelaga, now Montreal. No permanent settlement was then made. The first, Tadousac, at the mouth of the Saguenay, was established by Champlain in 1603, and Quebec was settled by him in 1608. Between that time and 1616 Champlain explored the whole river system as far west as Lake Huron, reaching it by way of the Ottawa river, and taking possession of the country in the name of the king of France. It became British by the treaty of Paris, in 1763. See S. E. Dawson, The St Lawrence, its Basin and Border Lands (New York, 1905) (historical); St Lawrence Pilot (7th ed., Hydrographic Office, Admiralty, London, 1906); Sailing Directions for the St Lawrence River to Montreal (United States Hydrographic Office publication, No. 108 D, Washington, 1907); Annual Reports of the Canadian Departments of Marine and Fisheries, Public Works, and Railways and Canals, Ottawa); Transactions (Royal Society, Canada, 1898-1899), vol. iv. sec. iii.; T. C. Keefer on "Ice Floods and Winter Navigation of the St Lawrence," Transactions (Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, Presidential Address of W. P. Anderson, on improvements to navigation on St Lawrence, 1904). (W. P. A.) ST Leger, Sir Anthony ( c. 1496-1559), lord deputy of Ireland, eldest son of Ralph St Leger, a gentleman of Kent, was educated abroad and at Cambridge. He quickly gained the favour of Henry VIII., and was appointed in 1537 president of a commission for inquiring into the condition of Ireland. This work he carried out with ability and obtained much useful knowledge of the country. In 1540 he was appointed lord deputy of Ireland. His first task was to repress disorder, and he at once proceeded with severity against the Kavanaghs, permitting them, however, to retain their lands, on their accepting feudal tenure on the English model. By a similar policy he exacted obedience from. the O'Mores, the O'Tooles and the O'Conors in Leix and Offaly; and having conciliated the O'Briens in the west and the earl of Desmond in the south, the lord deputy carried an act in the Irish parliament in Dublin conferring the title of king of Ireland on Henry VIII. and his heirs. Conn O'Neill, who in the north had remained sullenly hostile, was brought to submission by vigorous measures. For the most part, however, St Leger's policy was one of moderation and conciliation - rather more so, indeed, than Henry VIII. approved. He recommended The O'Brien, when he gave token of a submissive disposition, for the title of earl of Thomond; O'Neill was created earl of Tyrone; and administrative council was instituted in the province of Munster; and in 1544 a levy of Irish soldiers was raised for service in Henry VIII.'s wars. St Leger's personal influence was proved by an outbreak of disturbance when he visited England in 1544, and the prompt restoration of order on his return some months later. St Leger retained his office under Edward VI., and again effectually quelled attempts at rebellion by the O'Conors and O'Byrnes. From 1548 to 1550 he was in England. He returned charged with the duty of introducing the reformed liturgy into Ireland. His conciliatory methods brought upon him the accusation that he lacked zeal in the cause, and led to his recall in the summer of 1551. After the accession of Mary he was again appointed lord deputy in October 1553, but in consequence of a charge against him of keeping false accounts he was recalled for the third time in 1556. While the accusation was still under investigation, he died on the 16th of March 1559. By his wife Agnes, daughter of Hugh Warham, a niece cf Archbishop Warham, he had three sons, William, Warham and Anthony. William died in his father's lifetime leaving a son, Sir Warham St Leger (d. 1600), who was father of Sir William St Leger (d. 1642), president of Munster. Sir William took part in "the flight of the earls" (see O'Neill) in 1607, and spent several years abroad. Having received a. pardon from James and extensive grants of land in Ireland, he was appointed president of Munster by Charles I. in 1627. He warmly supported the arbitrary government of Strafford, actively assisting in raising and drilling the Irish levies destined for the service of the king against the Parliament. In the great rebellion of 1641 he bore the chief responsibility for dealing with the insurgents in Munster; but the forces and supplies placed at his disposal were utterly inadequate. He executed martial law in his province with the greatest severity, hanging large numbers of rebels, often without much proof of guilt. He was still struggling with the insurrection when he died at Cork on the 2nd of July 1642. Sir William's daughter Margaret married Murrough O'Brien, 1st earl of Inchiquin; his son John was father of Arthur St I l Leger, created Viscount Doneraile in 1703. A biography of Sir Anthony St Leger will be found in Athenae Cantabrigienses, by C. H. Cooper and T. Cooper (Cambridge, 1858); see also Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, Hen. VIII.-Eliz.; Calendar of Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII.; Calendar of State Papers (Domestic Series), Edward VI. - James I.; Calendar of Carew MSS.; J. O'Donovan's edition of Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (7 vols., Dublin, 1851); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (3 vols., London, 1885-1890); J. A. Froude, History of England (12 vols., London, 1856-1870). For Sir William St Leger, see Strafford's Letters and Despatches (2 vols., London, 1739); Thomas Carte, History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde (6 vols., Oxford, 1851); History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland, edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert (Dublin, 1882-1891). (R. J. M.) ST [[Leonards, Edward Burtenshaw Sugden, 1st Baron]] (1781-1875), lord chancellor of Great Britain, was the son of a hairdresser of Duke Street, Westminster, and was born on the 12th of February 1781. After practising for some years as a conveyancer, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1807, having already published his well-known treatise on the Law of Vendors and Purchasers (14th ed., 1862). In 18 22 he was made king's counsel and chosen a bencher of Lincoln's Inn. He was returned at different times for various boroughs to the House of Commons, where he made himself prominent by his opposition to the Reform Bill of 1832. He was appointed solicitor-general in 1829, was named lord chancellor of Ireland in 1834, and again filled the same office from 1841 to 1846. Under Lord Derby's first administration in 1852 he became lord chancellor and was raised to the peerage as Lord St Leonards. In this position he devoted himself with energy and vigour to the reform of the law; Lord Derby on his return to power in 1858 again offered him the same office, which from considerations of health he declined. He continued, however, to take an active interest especially in the legal matters that came before the House of Lords, and bestowed his particular attention on the reform of the law of property. He died at Boyle Farm, Thames Ditton, on the 29th of January 1875. After his death his will was missing, but his daughter, Miss Charlotte Sugden, was able to recollect the contents of a most intricate document, and in the action of Sugden v. Lord St Leonards (L.R. 1 P.D. 154) the court accepted her evidence and granted probate of a paper propounded as containing the provisions of the lost will. This decision established the proposition that the contents of a lost will may be proved by secondary evidence, even of a single witness. Lord St Leonards was the author of various important legal publications, many of which have passed through several editions. Besides the treatise on purchasers already mentioned, they include Powers, Cases decided by the House of Lords, Gilbert on Uses, New Real Property Laws and Handybook of Property Law, Misrepresentations in Campbell's Lives of Lyndhurst and Brougham, corrected by St Leonards. See The Times (30th of January 1875); E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904); J. R. Atlay, Lives of the Victorian Chancellors, vol. ii. A village of south-western France in the department of Ariege on the right bank of the Salat, i m. N.N.W. of St Girons. Pop. (1906) 615; commune 1295. St Lizier, in ancient times one of the twelve cities of Novempopulania under the name of Lugdunum Consoranorum, was later capital of the Couserans and seat of a bishopric (suppressed at the Revolution) to the holders of which the town belonged. It has a cathedral of the 12th and 14th centuries with a fine Romanesque cloister and preserves remarkable remains of Roman ramparts. The old episcopal palace (17th century) and the adjoining church (14th and 17th centuries), once the cathedral with its fine chapter-hall (12th century), form part of a lunatic asylum. The Salat is crossed by a bridge of the 1 2th or 13th century. The town owes its name to its bishop Lycerius, who is said to have saved it from the Vandals in the 7th century. The chief event in its history was its devastation in 1130 by Bernard III., count of Comminges, a disaster from which it never completely recovered. A town of north-western France, capital of the department of Manche, 471m. W. by S. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) town 9379; commune, 12,181. St LO is situated on a rocky hill on the right bank of the Vire. Its chief building is the Gothic church of Notre-Dame, dating mainly from the 16th century. The facade, flanked by two lofty towers and richly decorated, is impressive, despite its lack of harmony. There is a Gothic pulpit outside the choir. In the hotel-de-ville is the "Torigni marble," the pedestal of an ancient statue, the inscriptions on which relate chiefly to the annual assemblies of the Gallic deputies held at Lyons under the Romans. The modern church of Sainte-Croix preserves a Romanesque portal which belonged to the church of an ancient Benedictine abbey. St LO is the seat of a prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a training college for masters, a school of drawing, a branch of the Bank of France, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and a government stud. The town has trade in grain, fat stock, troop-horses and farm produce, and carries on tanning, wool-spinning and bleaching and the manufacture of woollen and other fabrics. St LO, called Briovera in the Gallo-Roman period, owes its present name to St LC') (Laudus), bishop of Coutances (d. 568). In the middle ages St LO became an important fortress as well as a centre for the weaving industry. It sustained numerous sieges, the last in 1574, when the town, which had embraced Calvinism, was stormed by the Catholics and many of its inhabitants massacred. In 1800 the town was made capital of its department in place of Coutances. The chief city and' a port of entry of Missouri, and the fourth in population among the cities of the United States, situated on the W. bank of the Mississippi river, about 20 m. below its confluence with the Missouri, 200 m. above the influx of the Ohio, and 1270 m. above the Gulf of Mexico, occupying a land area of 61.37 sq. m. in a commanding central position in the great drainage basin of the Mississippi system, the richest portion of the continent. Pop. (1880) 350,518, (1890) 451,770, (1900) 575,238, (1910) 687,029. The central site is marked by an abrupt terraced rise from the river to an easily sloping tableland, 4 or 5 m. long and somewhat less than 1 m. broad, behind which are rolling hills. The length of the river-front is about 19 m. The average elevation of the city is more than 425 ft.; and the recorded extremes of low and high water on the river are 379 and 428 ft. (both established in. 1844). The higher portions of the city lie about 200 ft. above the river level, and in general the site is so elevated that there can be no serious interruption of business except by extraordinary floods. The natural drainage is excellent, and the sewerage' system, long very imperfect, has been made adequate. The street plan is approximately rectilinear. The stone-paved wharf or river-front, known as the Levee or Front Street, is 3.7 m. long.. Market Street, running E. and W., is regarded as the central thoroughfare; and the numbering of the streets is systematized with reference to this line and the river. Broadway (or Fifth Street, from the river) and Olive Street are the chief shopping. centres; Washington Avenue, First (or Main) and Second Streets_ are devoted to wholesale trade; and Fourth Street is the financial centre. The most important public buildings are the Federal building, built of Maine granite; the county court house (18 391862, $1,199,872), - a semi-classic, plain, massive stone structure,. the Four Courts (1871, $755,000), built of cream-coloured Joliet stone, and a rather effective city hall (1890-1904, $2,000,000),. in Victorian Gothic style in brick and stone. The chief slavemarket before the Civil War was in front of the Court House. The City Art Museum, a handsome semi-classic structure of original design, and the Tudor-Gothic building of the Washington. University, are perhaps the most satisfying structures in the city architecturally. Among other noteworthy buildings are the Public Library, the Mercantile Library, the Mercantile, the Mississippi Valley, the Missouri-Lincoln, and the St Louis Union Trust Company buildings; the German-Renaissance home of the Mercantile Club; the florid building of the St Louis Club; the Merchants' Exchange; the Missouri School for the Blind; the Coliseum,. built in 1897 for conventions, horse shows, &c., torn down in 1907 and rebuilt in Jefferson Avenue, and the Union Station, used by all the railways entering the city. This last was opened in 1894, and cost, including the site, $6,500,000; has a train-shed with thirty-two tracks, covers some eleven acres, and is one of the largest and finest railway stations in the world. The city owns a number of markets. In 1907 a special architectural commission, appointed to supervise the construction of new municipal buildings, purchased a site adjacent to the City Hall, for new city courts and jail, which were begun soon afterwards. The valley of Mill Creek (once a lake bed, "Chouteau Pond," and afterwards the central sewer) traverses the city from W. to E. and gives entry to railways coming from the W. into the Union Station. The terminal system for connecting Missouri with Illinois includes, in addition to the central passenger station, vast centralized freight warehouses and depots; an elevated railway along the levee; passenger and freight ferries across the Mississippi with railway connexions; two bridges across the river; and a tunnel leading to one of them under the streets of the city along the river front. The Merchants' Bridge (1887-1890, $3,000,000), used solely by the railways, is 1366.5 ft. long in channel span, with approaches almost twice as long. The Eads Bridge (1868-1874; construction cost $6,536,730, total cost about $10,000,000) is 3 m. farther down the river; it carries both wagon ways and railway tracks, is 1627 ft. clear between shore abutments, and has three spans. Built entirely of steel above the piers, it is a happy combination of strength and grace, and was considered a marvel when erected. St Louis has exceptionally fine residential streets that are accounted among the handsomest in the world. The most notable are Portland Place, Westmoreland Place, Vandeventer Place, Kingsbury Place, &c., in the neighbourhood of Forest Park: broad parked avenues, closed with ornamental gateways, and flanked by large houses in fine grounds. The park system of the city is among the finest in the country, containing in 1910 2641.5 acres (cost to 1909, $6,417,745). Forest Park (1372 acres), maintained mainly in a natural, open-country state, is the largest single member of the system. In one end of it was held the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904. Tower Grove Park (277 acres) and the Missouri Botanical Gardens. `(45 acres), probably the finest of their kind in the country, were gifts to the city from a public-spirited citizen, Henry Shaw (1800-1889), who also endowed the botanical school of Washington University. Carondelet (180 acres), O'Fallon (158 acres),and Fairground(129 acres, including a 65-acre athletic field) are the finest of the other parks. King's Highway is a boulevard (partly completed in 1910) from the Mississippi on the S. to the Mississippi on the N., crossing the western part of the city. In accord with a general movement in American cities late in the 9th century, St Louis made a beginning in the provision of small "neighbourhood parks," intended primarily to better the lives of the city's poor, and vacation playgrounds for children; and for this purpose five blocks of tenements were condemned by the city. In the different parks and public places are statues of Columbus, Shakespeare (Tower Grove Park) and Humboldt (Tower Grove Park), by Ferdinand von Mueller of Munich; a replica of the Schiller monument at Marbach in Germany, and of Houdon's Washington (Lafayette Park); statues of Thomas Hart Benton (Lafayette Park; by Harriet Hosmer), of Francis Preston Blair (W. W. Gardner) and Edward Bates (J. W. McDonald), both in Forest Park, and of General Grant (R. P. Bringhurst) in the City Hall Park; all of these being in bronze. In the cemeteries of the city - of which the largest are Bellefontaine (350 acres) and Calvary (415 acres) - there are notable monuments to Henry Shaw, and to Nathaniel Lyon, Sterling Price, Stephen W. Kearny and W. T. Sherman, all closely associated with St Louis or Missouri. There are various lake, river and highland pleasure-resorts near the city; and about 12 m. S. is Jefferson Barracks, a national military post of the first class. The old arsenal within the city, about which centred the opening events of the Civil War in Missouri, has been mainly abandoned, and part of the grounds given to the municipality for a park. The annual fair, or exposition, was held in the autumn of each year - except in war time - from 18J5 to 1902, ceasing with the preparations for the World's Fair of 1904. One day of Fair Week ("Big Thursday") was a city holiday; and one evening of the week was given over after 1878 to a nocturnal illuminated pageant known as the Procession of the Veiled Prophet, with accompaniments in the style of the carnival (Mardi Gras) at New Orleans; this pageant is still continued. Among the educational institutions of the city, Washington University, a largely endowed, non-sectarian, co-educational school opened in 1857, is the most prominent. Under its control are three secondary schools, Smith Academy and the Manual Training School for Boys, and Mary Institute for Girls. The university embraces a department of arts and sciences, which includes a college and a school of engineering and architecture, and special schools of law, medicine (1899), dentistry, fine arts, social economy and botany. Affiliated with the university is the St Louis School of Social Economy, called until 1909 the St Louis School of Philanthropy, and in 1906-1909 affiliated with the university of Missouri. The Russell Sage Foundation co-operates with this school. In 1909 Washington University had 1045 students. In 1905 the department of arts and sciences and the law school were removed to the outskirts of the city, where a group of buildings of Tudor-Gothic style in red Missouri granite were erected upon grounds, which with about $6,000,000 for buildings and endowment, were given to the university. St Louis University had its beginnings (1818) as a Latin academy, became a college in 1820, and was incorporated as a university in 1832. One of the leading Jesuit colleges of the United States, it is the parent-school of six other prominent Jesuit colleges in the Middle West. In 1910 it comprised a school of philosophy and science (1832), a divinity school (1834), a medical school (1836), a law school (1843), a dental school (1908), a college, three academies and a commercial department; and its enrolment was 1181. It is the third largest, and the Christian Brothers' College (1851), also Roman Catholic, is the fourth largest educational institution in the state. The Christian Brothers' College had in 1910 30 instructors and 500 students, most of whom were in the preparatory department. Besides the Divinity School of St Louis University, there are three theological seminaries, Concordia (Evangelical Lutheran, 1839), Eden Evangelical College (German Evangelical Synod of North America, 1850) and Kenrick Theological Seminary (Roman Catholic, 1894). There are two evening law schools, Benton College (1896) and Metropolitan College (1901). The public school system came into national prominence under the administration (1867-1880) of William T. Harris, and for many years has been recognized as one of the best in the United States. The first permanent kindergarten in the country in connexion with the public schools was established in St Louis in 1873 by W. T. Harris (q.v.), then superintendent of schools, and Miss Susan Ellen Blow. The first public kindergarten training school was established at the same time. There is a teachers' college in the city school system, and there are special schools for backward children. Several school buildings have been successfully used as civic centres. The city has an excellent educational museum, material from which is available for object lessons in nature study, history, geography, art, &c., in all public schools. In the year1907-1908the total receipts for public education were $4,219,000, and the expenditure was $3,7 8 9, 60 4. The City Board of Education was chartered in 1897. The German element has lent strength to musical and gymnastic societies. The Museum and School of Fine Arts was established in 1879 as the Art Department of Washington University. In 1908 it first received the proceeds of a city tax of one-fifth mill per dollar, and in 1909 it was reorganized as the City Art Museum. In its building (the "Art Palace," built in1903-1904at a cost of $943,000 for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition; now owned by the city) in Forest Park are excellent collections (largely loaned) of sculpture and paintings (illustrating particularly the development of American art) and of art objects. The School of Fine Arts, now separate from the museum and a part of Washington University, has classes in painting, drawing, design, illustration, modelling, pottery, bookbinding, &c. Among the libraries the greatest collections are those of the Mercantile Library (in 1910, 136,000 volumes and pamphlets), a subscription library founded in 1846, and the public library (1865)- a fine city library since 1894, with 312,000 volumes in 1910 and six branch libraries, the gift of Andrew Carnegie, who also gave the city $500,000 towards the new public library, which was begun in 1909 and cost $1,500,000. Other notable collections are those of the St Louis Academy of Science and of the Missouri Botanical Gardens. There are at least three newspapers of national repute: the Republic, established in 1808 as the Missouri Gazette, and in1822-1886called the Missouri Republican; the Globe-Democrat (1852); and the Westliche Post (1857). In trade, industry and wealth St Louis is one of the most substantial cities of the Union. Its growth has been steady; but without such "booms" as have marked the history of many western cities, and especially Chicago, of which St Louis was for several decades the avowed rival. The primacy of the northern city was clear, however, by 1880. St Louis has borne a reputation for conservatism and solidity. Its manufactures aggregate three-fifths the value of the total output of the state. In 1880 their value was $114,333,375, and in 1890 $228,700,000; the value of the factory product was $193,732,788 in 1900, and in 1905 $267,307,038 (increase 1900-1905, 38%). Tobacco goods, malt liquors, boots and shoes and slaughtering and meat-packing products were the leading items in 1905. The packing industry is even more largely developed outside the city limits and across the river in East St Louis. St Louis is the greatest manufacturer of tobacco products among American cities, and probably in the world; the total in 1905 was 8.96% of the total output of manufactured tobacco in the United States; and the output of chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff in 1900 constituted 23.5% and in 1905 23.7% of the product of the country. St Louis is also the foremost producer of white lead, street and railway cars, and wooden ware; and in addition to these and the items above particularized, has immense manufactories of clothing, coffee and spices (roasted), paints, stoves and furnaces, flour, hardware, drugs and chemicals and clay products. One of its breweries is said to be the largest in the world. Aside from traffic in its own products, the central position of the city in the Mississippi Valley gives it an immense trade in the products of that tributary region, among which grains, cotton, tobacco, lumber, live stock and their derived products are the staples. In addition, it is a jobbing centre of immense interests in the distribution of other goods. The greatest lines of wholesale trade are dry goods, millinery and notions; groceries and allied lines; boots and shoes; tobacco; shelf and heavy hardware; furniture; railway supplies; street and railway cars; foundry and allied products; drugs, chemicals and proprietary medicines; beer; wooden-ware; agricultural implements; hides; paints; paint oils and white lead; electrical supplies; stoves, ranges and furnaces; and furs - the value of these different items ranging from 70 to 10 million dollars each. 1 According to the St Louis Board of Trade, St Louis is the largest primary fur market of the world, drawing supplies even from northern Canada. As a wool market Boston alone surpasses it, and as a vehicle market it stands in the second or third place. In the other industries just named, it claims to stand first among the cities of the Union. It is one of the greatest interior cotton markets of the country - drawing its supplies mainly from Arkansas, Texas and Oklahoma - but a large part of its receipts are for shipment on through bills of lading, and are not net receipts handled by its 1 These are arranged in the order shown by the Annual Statement for 1906 reported to the Merchants' Exchange. own factors. The gross cotton movement continues to increase, but the field of supply has been progressively lessened by the development of Galveston and other ports on the gulf. As a grain and stock market St Louis has felt the competition of Kansas City and St Joseph. River and railway transportation built up in turn the commanding commercial position of the city. The enormous growth of river traffic in the decade before 1860 gave it at the opening of the Civil War an incontestable primacy in the West. In 1910 about twenty independent railway systems, great and small (including two terminal roads within the city), gave outlet and inlet to commerce at St Louis; and of these fifteen are among the greatest systems of the country: the Baltimore & Ohio SouthWestern, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & Alton, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Illinois Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Missouri Pacific, the Pennsylvania, the St Louis South-Western, the Southern, the Wabash, the Louisville & Nashville, the Mobile & Ohio, and the Toledo, St Louis & Western. The construction of the Missouri Pacific Railway system was begun at St Louis in 1850, and various other roads were started in the next two years. For several decades railway development served only to increase the commercial primacy of the city in the southern Mississippi Valley, but in more recent years the concentration of roads at Kansas City enabled that place to draw from the west and south-west an immense trade once held by St Louis. River freighting is of very slight importance. St Louis is a port of entry for foreign commerce; its imports in 1 9 07 were valued at $7,442,967; in 1909 at $6,362,770. The population of St Louis in 1840 was 16,46 9; in 1850 it was 77,860 (seventh in size of the cities of the country); in 1860, 160,773; in 1870, 310,864 (third in size); in 1880, 350,518; in 1890, 451,770; in 1900, 575,238; and in 1 9 10, 687,029. Since 1890 it has been fourth in population among the cities of the United States. Of the population in 1 9 00 (575,238) 111, 3 56 were foreign-born and 35,516 were negroes. Of the foreign-born in 1900, 58,781 were Germans, 19,421 were Irish, 5800 were English, 4785 Russian. In 1 9 00, 1 54,74 6 inhabitants of St Louis were children of German parents. Under the state constitution of 1875 St Louis, as a city of ioo,000 inhabitants, was authorized to frame its own charter, and also to separate from St Louis county. These rights were exercised in 1876. The General Assembly of the state holds the same powers over St Louis as over other cities. The electorate may pass upon proposed amendments to the charter at any election, after due precedent publication thereof. The mayor holds office for four years. In 1823 the mayor was first elected by popular vote and the municipal legislature became unicameral. The bicameral system was again adopted in 183 9. The municipal assembly consists of a Council of 13 chosen at large for four years - half each two years - and a House of Delegates, 28 in number, chosen by wards for two years. A number of chief executive officers are elected for four years; the mayor and Council appoint others, and the appointment is made at the middle of the mayor's term in order to lessen the immediate influence of municipal patronage upon elections. Single commissioners control the parks, streets, water service, harbour and wharves, and sewers, and these constitute, with the mayor, a board of public improvement. Under an enabling act of 1907 the municipal assembly in 1909 created a public service commission, of three members, appointed by the mayor. The measure of control exercised by the state is important, the governor appointing the excise (liquor-licence) commissioner, the board of election commissioners, the inspector of petroleum and of tobacco, and (since 1861) the police board. St Louis is normally Republican in politics, and Missouri Democratic. Taxes for state and municipal purposes are collected by the city. The school board, as in very few other cities of the country, has independent taxing power. The city owns the steamboat landings and draws a small revenue from their rental. The heaviest expenses are for streets and parks, debt payments, police and education. The bonded debt in 1 9 10 was $27,815,312, and the assessed valuation of property in that year was $550,207,640. The city maintains hospitals, a poor-house, a reformatory work-house, an industrial school for children, and an asylum for the insane. The water-supply of the city is derived from the Mississippi, and is therefore potentially inexhaustible. Settling basins and a coagulant chemical plant (1904) are used to purify the water before distribution. After the completion of the Chicago drainage canal the state of Missouri endeavoured to compel its closure, on the ground that it polluted the Mississippi; but it was established to the satisfaction of the Supreme Court of the United States that the backflush from Lake Michigan had the contrary effect upon the Illinois. river, and therefore upon the Mississippi. Except for sediment the water-supply is not impure or objectionable. No public utilities, except the water-works, markets and public grain elevators, are owned by the city. The street railways are controlled - since a state law of 1899 permitted their consolidation - by one corporation, though a one-fare, universal transfer 5-cent rate is in general operation. A single corporation has controlled the gas service from 1846 to 1873 and since 1890, though under no exclusive franchise; and the city has not the right of purchase. St Louis was settled as a trading post in 1764 by Pierre Laclede Liguest (1724-1778), representative of a company to which the French crown had granted a monopoly of the trade of the Missouri river country. When, by the treaty of Paris of 1763,. the portion of Louisiana E. of the Mississippi was ceded by France to Great Britain, many of the French inhabitants of the district of the Illinois removed into the portion of Louisiana W. of the river, which had passed in 1762 under Spanish sovereignty; and of this lessened territory of upper Louisiana St Louis became the seat of government. In 1767 it was a log-cabin village of perhaps 500 inhabitants. Spanish rule became an actuality in 1770 and continued until 1804, when it was momentarily supplanted by French authority - existent theoretically since 1800 - and then, after the Louisiana Purchase, by the sovereignty of the United States. In 1780 the town was attacked by Indian allies. of Great Britain. Canadian-French hunters and trappers and boatmen, a few Spaniards and other Europeans, some Indians, more half-breeds, and a considerable body of Americans and negro slaves made up the motley population that became inhabitants of the United States. The fur trade was growing rapidly. Under American rule there was added the trade of a military supply-point for the Great West, and in1817-1819steamship traffic was begun with Louisville, New Orleans, and the lower Missouri river. Meanwhile, in 1808, St Louis was incorporated as a town, and in 1823 it became a city. The city charter became effective in March 1823. The early 'thirties marked the beginning of its great prosperity, and the decade1850-1860was one of colossal growth, due largely to the river trade. All freights were being moved by steamship as early as. 1825. The first railway was begun in 1850. At the opening of the Civil War the commercial position of the city was most commanding. Its prosperity, however, was dependent upon the prosperity of the South, and received a fearful set-back in the war. When the issue of secession or adherence to the Union had been made up in 1861, the outcome in St Louis, where the fate of the state must necessarily be decided, was of national importance. St Louis was headquarters for an army department and contained a great national arsenal. The secessionists tried to manoeuvre the state out of the Union by strategy, and to seize the arsenal. The last was prevented by Congressman Francis. Preston Blair, Jr., and Captain Nathaniel Lyon, first a subordinate and later commander at the arsenal. The garrison was strengthened; in April the president entrusted Blair and other loyal civilians with power to enlist loyal citizens, and put the city under martial law if necessary; in May ten regiments were ready - made up largely of German-American Republican clubs ("Wide Awakes"), which had been at first purely political, then - when force became necessary to secure election rights to anti-slavery men - semi-military, and which now were quickly made available for war; and on the 10th of May Captain Lyon surrounded and made prisoners a force of secessionists quartered in Camp Jackson on the outskirts of the city. A street riot followed, and 28 persons were killed by the volleys of the military. St Louis was held by the Union forces throughout the war. During a quarter century following 1857 the city was the centre of an idealistic philosophical movement that has had hardly any counterpart in American culture except New England transcendentalism. Its founders were William T. Harris (q.v.) and Henry C. Brockmeyer (b. 1828), who was lieutenant-governor of the state in 1876-1880. A. Bronson Alcott was one of the early lecturers to the group which gathered around these two, a group which studied Hegel and Kant, Plato and Aristotle. Brockmeyer published excellent versions of Hegel's Unabridged Logic, Phenomenology and Psychology. Harris became the greatest of American exponents of Hegel. Other members of the group were Thomas Davidson (1840-1900), Adolph E. Kroeger, the translator of Fichte, Anna Callender Brackett (b. 1836), who published in 1886 an English version of Rosenkranz's History of Education, Denton Jaques Snider (b. 1841), whose best work has been on Froebel, and William McKendree Bryant (b. 1843), who wrote Hegel's Philosophy of Art (1879) and Hegel's Educational Ideas (1896). This Philosophical Society published (1867-1893) at St Louis The Journal of Speculative Philosophy, the first periodical of the sort in English. Since the war the city's history has been signalized chiefly by economic development. A period in this was auspiciously closed in 1904 by the holding of a world's fair to celebrate the centennial of the purchase from France, in 1803, of the Louisiana territory - since then divided into 13 states, and containing in 1900 some 12,500,000 inhabitants. Preparations for this Louisiana Purchase Exposition began in 1898. It was the largest world's fair held to date, the site covering 1240 acres, of which 250 were under roof. The total cost, apart from individual exhibitions, was about $42,500,000, of which the national government contributed $5,000,000 and the city of St Louis and its citizens $10,000,000. Altogether 12,804,616 paid admissions were collected (total admissions 19,694,855) during the seven months that it was open, and there was a favourable balance at the close of about $1,000,000. Up to 1848 St Louis was controlled in politics almost absolutely by the Whigs; since then it has been more or less evenly contested by the Democrats against the Whigs and Republicans. The Republicans now usually have the advantage. As mentioned before, the state is habitually Democratic; "boss" rule in St Louis was particularly vicious in the late 'nineties, and corruption was the natural result of ring rule - the Democratic bosses have at times had great power - and of the low pay - only $25 monthly - of the city's delegates and councilmen. But the reaction came, and with it a strong movement for independent voting. Fire, floods, epidemics, and wind have repeatedly attacked the city. A great fire in 1849 burned along the levee and adjacent streets, destroying steamers, buildings, and goods worth, by the estimate of the city assessor, more than $6,000,000. Cholera broke out in 1832-1833, 1849-1851, and 1866, causing in three months of 1849 almost 4000 deaths, or the death of a twentieth of all inhabitants. Smallpox raged in 1872-1875. These epidemics probably reflect the one-time lamentable lack of proper sewerage. Great floods occurred in 1785, 1811, 1826, 1844, 1872, 1885 and 1903; those of 1785 and 1844 being the most remarkable. There were tornadoes in 1833, 1852 and 1871; and in 1896 a cyclone of 20 minutes' duration, accompanied by fire but followed fortunately by a tremendous rain, destroyed or wrecked 8500 buildings and caused a loss of property valued at more than $10,000,000. East St Louis, a city of St Clair county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi, lies opposite St Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1880), 9185; (1890), 15,169; (1900), 29,655, of whom 3920 were foreign born (mostly German and Irish); (1910 census) 58,547. It is one of the great railway centres of the country. Into it enter from the east sixteen lines of railway, which cross to St Louis by the celebrated steel arch bridge and by the Merchants' Bridge. It is also served by three interurban electric railways. The site of East St Louis is in the "American Bottom," little above the high-water mark of the river. This "bottom" stretches a long distance up and down the river, with a breadth of ro or 12 m. It is intersected by many sloughs and crescent-shaped lakes which indicate former courses of the river. The manufacturing interests of East St Louis are important, among the manufactories being packing establishments, iron and steel works, rolling-mills and foundries, flourmills, glass works, paint works and wheel works. By far the most important industry is slaughtering and meat packing: both in 1900 and in 1905 East St Louis ranked sixth among the cities of the United States in this industry; its product in 1900 was valued at $27,676,818 (out of a total for all industries of $32,460,957), .and 'in 1905 the product of the slaughtering and meat-packing establishments in and near the limits of East St Louis was valued at $39,972,245, in the same year the total for all industries within the corporate limits being only $37,586,198. The city has a large horse and mule market. East St Louis was laid out about 1818, incorporated as a town in 1859, and chartered as a city in 1865. Consult the Encyclopaedia of the History of St Louis (4 vols., St Louis, 1899); J. T. Scharf, History of St Louis City and County including Biographical Sketches (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1883); E. H. Shepherd, Early History of St Louis and Missouri. .. 1763-1843 (St Louis, 1870); F. Billon, Annals of St Louis. .. 1804 to 1821 (2 vols., St Louis, 1886-1888); G. Anderson, Story of a Border City during the Civil War (Boston, 1908); The Annual Statement of the Trade and Commerce of St Louis. .. reported to the Merchants' Exchange, by its secretary. The capital of the French colony of Senegal, West Africa, with a population (1904) of 24,070, or including the suburbs, 28,469. St Louis, known to the natives as N'dar, is 163 m. by rail N.N.E. of Dakar and is situated on an island 112 m. above the mouth of the Senegal river, near the right bank, there separated from the sea by a narrow strip of sand called the Langue de Barbaric. This strip of sand is occupied by the villages of N'dar Toute and Guet N'dar. Three bridges connect the town with the villages; and the Pont Faidherbe, 2132 ft. long, affords communication with Bouetville, a suburb on the left bank, and the terminus of the railway to Dakar. The houses of the European quarter have for the most part flat roofs, balconies and terraces. Besides the governor's residence the most prominent buildings are the cathedral, the great mosque, the court-house, the barracks and military offices, and the docks. The round beehive huts of Guet N'dar are mainly inhabited by native fishermen. N'dar Toute consists of villas with gardens, and is a summer watering-place. There is a pleasant public garden, and N'dar Toute is approached by a magnificent alley of palm-trees. The low-lying position of St Louis and the extreme heat render it unhealthy, whilst the sandy nature of the soil causes intense inconvenience. The mouth of the Senegal being obstructed by a shifting bar of sand, the steamships of the great European lines do not come up to St Louis; passengers embark and land at Dakar, on the eastern side of Cape Verde. Ships for St Louis have often to wait outside or inside the bar for days or weeks, and partial unloading is frequently necessary. From July to the end of September - that is during flood-time - the water over the bar is, however, deep enough to enable vessels to reach St Louis without difficulty. St Louis is believed to have been the site of a European settlement since the 15th century, but the present town was founded in 1626 by Dieppe merchants known as the Compagnie normande. It is the oldest colonial establishment in Africa belonging to France (see Senegal). Its modern development dates from 1854. The town, however, did not receive municipal government till 1872. All citizens, irrespective of colour, can vote. From 1895 to 1903 St Louis was not only the capital of Senegal, but the residence of the governor-general of French West Africa. In November of the lastnamed year the governor-general removed to Dakar. Small forts defend St Louis from the land side - the surrounding country, the Cayor, being inhabited by a warlike race, which previously to the building (1882-1885) of the St Louis-Dakar railway was a continual source of trouble. The town carries on a very active trade with all the countries watered by the Senegal and the middle Niger. St Louis is connected with Brest by a direct cable, and with Cadiz via the Canary Islands. The largest of the British Windward Islands, West Indies, in 14° N., 61° W., 24 m. S. of Martinique and 21 m. N.E. of St Vincent. Its area is 233 sq. m., length 42 m., maximum breadth 12 m., and its coast-line is 150 m. long. It is considered one of the loveliest of all the West Indian islands. It is a mass of mountains, rising sheer from the water, their summits bathed in perpetual mist. Impenetrable forests alternate with fertile plains, and deep ravines and frowning precipices with beautiful bays and coves. Everywhere there is luxuriant vegetation. Les Pitons (2720 and 2680 ft.) are the chief natural feature - two immense pyramids of rock rising abruptly from the sea, their slopes, inclined at an angle of 60°, being clad on three sides with densest verdure. No connexion has been traced between them and the mountain system of the island. In the S.W. also is the volcano of Soufriere (about 4000 ft.), whose crater is 3 acres in size and covered with sulphur and cinders. The climate is humid, the rainfall varying from 70 to 120 in. per annum, with an average temperature of 80° F. The soil is deep and rich; the main products are sugar, cocoa, logwood, coffee, nutmegs, mace, kola-nuts and vanilla, all of which are exported. Tobacco also is grown, but not for export. The usine or central factory system is established, there being four government sugar-mills. Snakes, formerly prevalent, have been almost exterminated by the introduction of the mongoose. Only about a third of the island is cultivated, the rest being crown land under virgin forest, abounding in timber suitable for the finest cabinet work. The main import trade up to 1904 was from Great Britain; since then, owing to the increased coal imports from the United States, the imports are chiefly from other countries. The majority of the exports go to the United States and to Canada. In the ten years1898-1907the imports averaged £322,000 a year; the exports £195,000 a year. Bunker coal forms a large item both in imports and exports. Coal, sugar, cocoa and logwood form the chief exports. Education is denominational, assisted by government grants. The large majority of the schools are under the control of the Roman Catholics, to whom all the government primary schools were handed over in 1898. There is a government agricultural school. St Lucia is controlled by an administrator (responsible to the governor of the Windward Islands), assisted by an executive council. The legislature consists of the administrator and a council of nominated members. Revenue and expenditure in the period1901-1907balanced at about f60,000 a year. The law of the island preserves, in a modified form, the laws of the French monarchy. Castries, the capital, on the N.W. coast, has a magnificent landlocked harbour. There is a concrete wharf 650 ft. long with a depth alongside of 27 ft., and a wharf of wood 552 ft. in length. It is the principal coaling station of the British fleet in the West Indies, was strongly fortified, and has been the military headquarters. (The troops were removed and the military works stopped in 1905.) It is a port of registry, and the facilities it offers as a port of call are widely recognized, the tonnage of ships cleared and entered rising from 1,555,000 in 1898 to 2,627,000 in 1907. Pop. (1901) 7910. Soufriere, in the south, the only other town of any importance, had a population of 2394. The Caribs have disappeared from the island, and the bulk of the inhabitants are negroes. Their language is a French patois, but English is gradually replacing it. There is a small colony of East Indian coolies, and the white inhabitants are mostly creoles of French descent. The total population of the island (1901) is 49 8 33 History. - St Lucia is supposed to have been discovered by Columbus in 1502, and to have been named by the Spaniards after the saint on whose day it was discovered. It was inhabited by Caribs, who killed the majority of the first white people (Englishmen) who attempted to settle on the island (1605). For two centuries St Lucia was claimed both by France and by England. In 1627 the famous Carlisle grant included St Lucia among British possessions, while in 1635 the king of France granted it to two of his subjects. In 1638 some 130 English from St Kitts formed a settlement, but in 1641 were killed or driven away by the Caribs. The French in 1650 sent settlers from Martinique who concluded a treaty of peace w Copyright Statement These files are public domain. Bibliography Information
Chisholm, Hugh, General Editor. Entry for 'Jean Francois de Saint-Lambert'. 1911 Encyclopedia Britanica. https://www.studylight.org/encyclopedias/eng/bri/j/jean-francois-de-saint-lambert.html. 1910.  Ads FreeProfile |