Bible Encyclopedias
Alps

1. Position and Name

The continent of Europe is no more than a great peninsula extending westwards from the much vaster continent of Asia, while it is itself broken up by two inland seas into several smaller peninsulas - the Mediterranean forming the Iberian, the Italian and the Greek peninsulas, while the Baltic forms that of Scandinavia and the much smaller one of Denmark. Save the last-named, all these peninsulas of Europe are essentially mountain ranges. But in height and importance the ranges that rise therein are much surpassed by a great mountain-chain, stretching from south-eastern France to the borders of Hungary, as well as between the plains of northern Italy and of southern Germany. This chain is collectively known as the Alps, and is the most important physical feature of the European continent. The Alps, however, do not present so continuous a barrier as the Himalayas, the Andes or even the Pyrenees. They are formed of numerous ranges, divided by comparatively deep valleys, which, with many local exceptions, tend towards parallelism with the general direction of the whole mass. This, between the Dauphine and the borders of Hungary, forms a broad band convex towards the north, while most of the valleys lie between the directions west to east and south-west to north-east. But in many parts deep transverse valleys intersect the prevailing direction of the ridges, and facilitate the passage of man, plants and animals, as well as of currents of air which mitigate the contrast that would otherwise be found between the climates of the opposite slopes.

The derivation of the name Alps is still very uncertain, some writers connecting it with a Celtic root alb, said to mean height, while others suggest the Latin adjective albus (white), referring to the colour of the snowy peaks. But in all parts of the great chain itself, the term Alp (or Alm in the Eastern Alps) is exclusively applied to the high mountain pastures (see ALP), and not to the peaks and ridges of the chain.

2. Limits

These will depend on the meaning we attach to the word Alps as referring to the great mountain-chain of central Europe. If we merely desire to distinguish it from certain minor ranges (e.g. the Cevennes, the Jura, the hills of central Germany, the Carpathians, the Apennines), which ar really independent ranges rather than offshoots of the main chain, the best limits are on the west (strictly speaking south), the Col d'Altare or di Cadibona (1624 ft.), leading from Turin to Savona and Genoa, and on the east the line of the railway over the Semmering Pass (3215 ft.) from Vienna to Marburg in the Mur valley, and on by Laibach to Trieste. But if we confine the meaning of the term Alps to those parts of the chain that are what is commonly called " Alpine," where the height is sufficient to support a considerable mass of perpetual snow, our boundaries to the west and to the east must be placed at spots other than those mentioned above. To the west the limit will then be the Col de Tenda (6145 ft.), leading from Cuneo (Coni) to Ventimiglia, while on the east our line will be the route over the Radstadter Tauern (5702 ft.) and the Katschberg (5384 ft.) from Salzburg to Villach in Carinthia, and thence by Klagenfurt to Marburg and so past Laibach in Carniola on to Trieste; from Villach the direct route to Trieste would be over the Predil Pass (3813 ft.) or the Pontebba or Saifnitz Pass (2615 ft.), more to the west, but in either case this would exclude the Terglou (9400 ft.), the highest summit of the entire South-Eastern Alps, as well as its lower neighbours.

On the northern side the Alps (in whichever sense we take this term) are definitely bounded by the course of the Rhine from Basel to the Lake of Constance, the plain of Bavaria, and the low region of foot-hills that extend from Salzburg to the neighbourhood of Vienna. One result of this limit, marked out by Nature herself, is that the waters which flow down the northern slope of the Alps find their way either into the North Sea through the Rhine, or into the Black Sea by means of the Danube, not a drop reaching the Baltic Sea. On the southern side the mountains extending from near Turin to near Trieste subside into the great plain of Piedmont, Lombardy and Venetia. But what properly forms the western bit of the Alps runs, from near Turin to the Col de Tenda, in a southerly direction, then bending eastwards to the Col d'Altare that divides it from the Apennines.

It should be borne in mind that the limits adopted above refer purely to the topographical aspect of the Alps as they exist at the present day. Naturalists will of course prefer other limits according as they are geologists, botanists or zoologists.

3. Climate

It is well known that as we rise from the sealevel into the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases. The effect of mountain-chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat, often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow or rain. The position of the Alps about the centre of the European continent has profoundly modified the climate of all the surrounding regions. The accumulation of vast masses of snow, which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers, maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges; it cools the breezes that are wafted to the plains on either side, but its most important function is to regulate the water-supply of that large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps. Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during six or seven months is stored up in the form of snow, and is gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer; even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the greater streams. Nor is this all; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia, and afford an inexhaustible supply of water, which, from a remote period, has been used for that system of irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility. Six regions or zones, which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation, are found in the Alps. It is an error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height above the sea-level. Local conditions of exposure to the sun, protection from cold winds, or the reverse, are of primary importance in determining the climate and the corresponding vegetation.

The great plain of Upper Italy has a winter climate colder than that of the British Islands. The olive and the characteristic shrubs of the northern coasts of the Mediterranean do not thrive in the open air, but the former valuable tree ripens its fruit in sheltered places at the foot of the mountains, and penetrates along the deeper valleys and the shores of the Italian lakes. The evergreen oak is wild on the rocks about the Lake of Garda, and lemons are cultivated on a large scale, with partial protection in winter. The olive has been known to survive severe cold when of short duration, but it cannot be cultivated with success where frosts are prolonged, or where the mean winter temperature falls below 42° F.; and to produce fruit it requires a heat of at least 75° F. during the day, continued through four or five months of the summer and autumn. The vine is far more tolerant of cold than the olive, but to produce tolerable wine it demands, at the season of ripening, a degree of heat not much less than that needed by the the deeper valleys of the Alps, even in the interior of the chain, and up to a considerable height on slopes exposed to the sun. The protection afforded by winter snow enables the plant to resist severe and prolonged frosts, such as would be fatal in more exposed situations. Many wild plants characteristic of the warmer parts of middle Europe are seen to flourish along with the vine. A mean summer temperature of at least 68° F. is considered necessary to produce tolerable wine, but in ordinary seasons this is much exceeded in many of the great valleys of the Alps.

Many writers take the growth of grain as the characteristic of the mountain region; but so many varieties of all the common species are in cultivation, and these have such different climatal requirements, that they do not afford a satisfactory criterion. A more natural limit is afforded by the presence of the chief deciduous trees - oak, beech, ash and sycamore. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit usually lies about 4000 ft. above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 5000 ft., sometimes even to 55 00 ft. It must not be supposed that this region is always marked by the presence of the characteristic trees. The interference of man has in many districts almost extirpated them, and, excepting the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, a considerable wood of deciduous trees is scarcely anywhere to be found. In many districts where such woods once existed, their place has been occupied by the Scottish pine and spruce, which suffer less from the ravages of goats, the worst enemies of tree vegetation. The mean annual temperature of this region differs little from that of the British Islands; but the climatal conditions are widely different. Here snow usually lies for several months, till it gives place to a spring and summer considerably warmer than the average of British seasons.

The Subalpine is the region which mainly determines the manner of life of the population of the Alps. On a rough estimate we may reckon that, of the space lying between the summits of the Alps and the low country on either side, one-quarter is available for cultivation, of which about one-half may be vineyards and corn-fields, while the remainder produces forage and grass. About another quarter is utterly barren, consisting of snow-fields, glaciers, bare rock, lakes and the beds of streams. There remains about one-half, which is divided between forest and pasture, and it is the produce of this half which mainly supports the relatively large population. For a quarter of the year the flocks and herds are fed on the upper pastures; but the true limit of the wealth of a district is the number of animals that can be supported during the long winter, and while one part of the population is engaged in tending the beasts and in making cheese and butter, the remainder is busy cutting hay and storing up winter food for the cattle. The larger villages are mostly in the mountain region, but in many parts of the Alps the villages stand in the subalpine region at heights varying from 4000 ft. to 55 00 ft. above the sea, more rarely extending to about 6000 ft. The most characteristic feature of this region is the prevalence of coniferous trees, which, where they have not been artificially kept down, form vast forests that cover a large part of the surface. These play a most important part in the natural economy of the country. They protect the valleys from destructive avalanches, and, retaining the superficial soil by their roots, they mitigate the destructive effects of heavy rains. In valleys where they have been rashly cut away, and the waters pour down the slopes unchecked, every tiny rivulet becomes a raging torrent, that carries off the grassy slopes and devastates the floor of the valley, covering the soil with gravel and debris. In the pine forests of the Alps the prevailing species are the common spruce and the silver fir; on siliceous soil the larch flourishes, and surpasses every other European species in height. The Scottish pine is chiefly found at a lower level and rarely forms forests. The Siberian fir is found scattered at intervals throughout the Alps but is not common. The mughus, creeping pine, or Krummholz of the Germans, is common in the Eastern Alps, and sometimes forms on the higher mountains a distinct zone above the level of its congeners. In the Northern Alps the pine forests rarely surpass the limit of 6000 ft. above the sea, but on the south side they commonly attain 7000 ft., while the larch, Siberian fir and mughus often extend above that elevation.

Throughout the Teutonic region of the Alps the word Alp is used specifically for the upper pastures where cattle are fed in summer, but this region is held to include the whole space between the uppermost limit of trees and the first Alpine p pp appearance of permanent masses of snow. It is here that the characteristic vegetation of the Alps is developed in its full beauty and variety. Shrubs are not wanting. Three species of rhododendron vie with each other in the brilliancy of their masses of red or pink flowers; the common juniper rises higher still, along with three species of bilberry; and several dwarf willows attain nearly to the utmost limit of vegetation. The upper limit of this region coincides with the so-called limit of perpetual snow.

On the higher parts of lofty mountains more snow falls in each year than is melted on the spot. A portion of this is carried away by the wind before it is consolidated; a larger portion accumulates in hollows and depressions of the region. surface, and is gradually converted into glacier-ice, which descends by a slow secular motion into the deeper valleys, where it goes to swell perennial streams. As on a mountain the snow does not lie in beds of uniform thickness, and some parts are more exposed to the sun and warm winds than others, we commonly find beds of snow alternating with exposed slopes covered with brilliant vegetation; and to the observer near at hand there is no appearance in the least corresponding to the term limit of perpetual snow, though the case is otherwise when a high mountain-chain is viewed from a distance. Similar conditions are repeated at many different points, so that the level at which large snow-beds show themselves along its flanks is approximately horizontal. But this holds good only so far as the conditions are similar. On the opposite sides of the same chain the exposure to the sun or to warm winds may cause a wide difference in the level of permanent snow; but in some cases the increased fall of snow on the side exposed to moist winds may more than compensate the increased influence of the sun's rays. Still, even with these reservations, the so-called line of perpetual snow is not fixed. The occurrence of favourable meteorological conditions during several successive seasons may and does increase the extent of the snow-fields, and lower the limit of seemingly permanent snow; while an opposite state of things may cause the limit to rise higher on the flanks of the mountains. Hence all attempts to fix accurately the level of perpetual snow in the Alps are fallacious, and can at the best approach only to local accuracy for a particular district. In some parts of the Alps the limit maybe set at about 8000 ft. above the sea, while in others it cannot be placed much below 9500 ft.

more delicate tree. These conditions are satisfied in English Miles o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 £30 Peaks Passes Glaciers Land above 1500 feet left white Emery Walker sG As very little snow can rest on rocks that lie at an angle exceeding 60°, and this is soon removed by the wind, some steep masses of rock remain bare even near the summits of the highest peaks, but as almost every spot offering the least hold for vegetation is covered with snow, few flowering plants are seen above ii,000 ft. There is reason to think, however, that it is the want of soil rather than climatal conditions that checks the upward extension of the alpine flora. Increased direct effect of solar radiation compensates for the cold of the nights, and in the few spots where plants have been found in flower up to a height of 12,000 ft., nothing has indicated that the processes of vegetation were arrested by the severe cold which they must sometimes endure. The climate of the glacial region has often been compared to that of the polar regions, but they are widely different. Here, intense solar radiation by day, which raises the surface when dry to a temperature approaching 80° F., alternates with severe frost by night. There, a sun which never sets sends feeble rays that maintain a low equable temperature, rarely rising more than a few degrees above the freezing-point. Hence the upper region of the Alps sustains a far more varied and brilliant vegetation.

4. Main Chain. - In the case of every mountain system geographers are disposed to regard, as a general rule, the watershed (or boundary dividing the waters flowing towards opposite slopes of the range) as marking the main chain, and this usage is justified in that the highest peaks often rise on or very near the watershed. Yet, as a matter of fact, several important mountain groups are situated on one or other side of the watershed of the Alps, and form almost independent ranges, being only connected with the main chain by a kind of peninsula: such are the Dauphine Alps, the Eastern and Western Graians, the entire Bernese Oberland, the Todi, Albula and Silvretta groups, the Ortler and Adamello ranges, and the Dolomites of south Tirol, not to speak of the lower Alps of the Vorarlberg, Bavaria and Salzburg. Of course each of these semi-detached ranges has a watershed of its own, like the lateral ridges that branch off from the main watershed. Thus there are lofty ranges parallel to that which forms the main watershed. The Alps, therefore, are not composed of a single range (as shown on the old maps) but of a great " divide," flanked on either side by other important ranges, which, however, do not comprise such lofty peaks as the main watershed. In the following remarks we propose to follow the main watershed from one end of the Alps to the other.

Starting from the Col d'Altare or di Cadibona (west of Savona), the main chain extends first south-west, then north-west to the Col de Tenda, though nowhere rising much beyond the zone of coniferous trees. Beyond the Col de Tenda the direction is first roughly west, then north-west to the Rocher des Trois Eveques (939 0 ft.), just south of the Mont Enchastraye (9695 ft.), several peaks of about 10,000 ft. rising on the watershed, though the highest of all, the Punta dell' Argentera (10,794 ft.) stands a little way to its north. From the Rocher des Trois Eveques the watershed runs due north for a long distance, though of the two loftiest peaks of this region one, the Aiguille de Chambeyron (11,155 ft.), is just to the west, and the other, the Monte Viso (12,609 ft.), is just to the east of the watershed. From the head of the Val Pellice the main chain runs north-west, and diminishes much in average height till it reaches the Mont Thabor (10,440 ft.), which forms the apex of a salient angle which the main chain here presents towards the west. Hence the main watershed extends eastwards, culminating in the Aiguille de Scolette (11,500 ft.), but makes a great curve to the north-west and back to the south-east before rising in the Rochemelon (11,605 ft.), which may be considered as a re-entering angle in the great rampart by which Italy is guarded from its neighbours. Thence the direction taken is north as far as the eastern summit (11,693 ft.) of the Levanna, the watershed rising in a series of snowy peaks, though the loftiest point of the region, the Pointe de Charbonel (12,336 ft.), stands a little to the west. Once more the chain bends to the north-west, rising in several lofty peaks (the highest is the Aiguille de la Grande Sassiere, 12,323 ft.), before attaining the considerable depression of the Little St Bernard Pass. Thence for a short way the direction is north to the Col de la Seigne, and then north-east along the crest of the Mont Blanc chain, which culminates in the peak of Mont Blanc (15,782 ft.), the loftiest in the Alps. A number of high peaks crown our watershed before it attains the Mont Dolent (12,543 ft.). Thence after a short dip to the south-east, our chain takes near the Great St Bernard Pass the generally eastern direction that it maintains till it reaches Monte Rosa,whence it bends northwards, making one small dip to the east as far as the Simplon Pass. It is in the portion of the watershed between the Great St Bernard and the Simplon that the main chain maintains a greater average height than in any other part. But, though it rises in a number of lofty peaks, such as the Mont Velan (12,353 ft.), the Matterhorn (14,782 ft.), the Lyskamm (14,889 ft.), the Nord End of Monte Rosa (15,132 ft.), and the Weissmies (13,226 ft.), yet many of the highest points of the region, such as the Grand Combin (14,164 ft.), the Dent Blanche (14,318 ft.), the Weisshorn (14,804 ft.), the true summit or Dufourspitze (15,217 ft.) of Monte Rosa itself, and the Dom (14,942 ft.), all rise on its northern slope and not on the main watershed. On the other hand the chain between the Great St Bernard and the Simplon sinks at barely half a dozen points below a level of 10,000 ft. The Simplon Pass corresponds to what may be called a dislocation of the main chain. Thence to the St Gotthard the divide runs north-east, all the higher summits (including the Monte Leone, 11,684 ft., and the Pizzo Rotondo, 10,489 ft.) rising on it, a curious contrast to the long stretch just described. From the St Gotthard to the Maloja the watershed between the basins of the Rhine and Po runs in an easterly direction as a whole, though making two great dips towards the south, first to near the Vogelberg (10,565 ft.) and again to near the Pizzo Gallegione (10,201 ft.), so that it presents a broken and irregular appearance. But all the loftiest peaks rise on it: Scopi (10,499 ft.), Piz Medel (10,509 ft.), the Rheinwaldhorn (11,149 ft.), the Tambohorn (10,749 ft.) and Piz Timun (10,502 ft.).

From the Maloja Pass the main watershed dips to the southeast for a short distance, and then runs eastwards and nearly over the highest summit of the Bernina group, the Piz Bernina (13,304 ft.), to the Bernina Pass. Thence to the Reschen Scheideck Pass the main chain is ill-defined, though on it rises the Corno di Campo (10,844 ft.), beyond which it runs slightly north-east past the sources of the Adda and the Fra g ile Pass, sinks to form the depression of the Ofen Pass, soon bends north and rises once more in the Piz Sesvenna (10,568 ft.).

The break in the continuity of the Alpine chain marked by the deep valley, the Vintschgau, of the upper Adige (Etsch) is one of the most remarkable features in the orography of the Alps. The little Reschen lake which forms the chief source of the Adige is only 13 ft. below the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), and by it is but 5 m. from the Inn valley. Eastward of this pass, the main chain runs north-east to the Brenner Pass along the snowy crest of the Oetzthal and Stubai Alps, the loftiest point on it being the Weisskugel (12,291 ft., Oetzthal), for the highest summits both of the Oetzthal and of the Stubai districts, the Wildspitze (12,382 ft.) and the Zuckerhiitl (11,520 ft.) stand a little to the north.

The Brenner (4495 ft.) is almost the lowest of all the great carriage-road passes across the main chain, and has always been the chief means of communication between Germany and Italy. For some way beyond it the watershed runs eastwards over the highest crest of the Zillerthal Alps, which attains 11,559 ft. in the Hochfeiler. But, a little farther, at the Dreiherrenspitze (11,500 ft.) we have to choose between following the watershed southwards, or keeping due east along the highest crest of the Greater Tauern Alps. (a) The latter course is adopted by many geographers and has much in its favour. The eastward direction is maintained and the watershed (though not the chief Alpine watershed) continues through the Greater Tauern Alps, culminating in the Gross Venediger (12,008 ft.), for the Gross Glockner (12,461 ft.) rises to the south. Our chain bends northeast near the Radstddter Tauern Pass, and preserves that direction through the Lesser Tauern Alps to the Semmering Pass. (b) On the other hand, if from the Dreiherrenspitze we cleave to the true main watershed of the Alpine chain, we find that it dips south, passes over the Hochgall (11,287 ft.), the culminating point of the Rieserferner group, and then sinks to the Toblach Pass, but at a point a little east of the great Dolomite peak of the Drei Zinnen it bends east again, and rises in the Monte Coglians (9128 ft., the monarch of the Carnic Alps). Soon after our watershed makes a last bend to the south-east and culminates in the Terglou (9400 ft.), the highest point of the Julic Alps, though the Grintovc (8429 ft., the culminating point of the Karawankas Alps) stands more to the east. Finally our watershed turns south and ends near the great limestone plateau of the Birnbaumerwald, between Laibach and Gorz.

As might be expected, the main chain boasts of more glaciers and eternal snow than the independent or external ranges. Yet it is a curious fact that the three longest glaciers in the Alps (the Great Aletsch, 162 m., and the Unteraar and the Fiescher, each 10 m.) are all in the Bernese Oberland. In the main chain the two longest are both 94 m., the Mer de Glace at Chamonix and the Gorner at Zermatt. In the Eastern Alps the longest glacier is the Pasterze (rather over 64 m.), which is not near the true main watershed, though it clings to the slope of the Greater Tauern range, east of the Dreiherrenspitze. But the next two longest glaciers in the Eastern Alps (the Hintereis, 64 m., and the Gepatsch, 6 m.) are both in the Oetzthal Alps, and so close to the true main watershed.

The so-called alpine lakes are the sheets of water found at the foot of the Alps, on either slope, just where the rivers that form them issue into the plains. There are, however, alpine lakes higher up (e.g. the lake of Thun, and those in the Upper Engadine, in the heart of the mountains, though these are naturally smaller in extent, while the true lakes of the High Alps are represented by the glacier lakes of the Marjelensee (near the Great Aletsch glacier) and those on the northern slope of the Col de Fenetre, between Aosta and the Val de Bagnes. The most singular, and probably the loftiest, lake in the Alps is the ever-frozen tarn that forms the summit of the Roccia Viva (11,976 ft.) in the Eastern Graians.

Among the great alpine rivers we may distinguish two classes: those which spring directly from glaciers and those which rise in lakes, these being fed by eternal snows or glaciers. In the former class are the Isere, the Rhone, the Aar, the Ticino, the Tosa, the Hinter (or main) Rhine and the Linth; while in the latter class we have the Durance, the Po, the Reuss, the Vorder and middle branches of the Rhine, the Inn, the Adda, the Oglio and the Adige. The Piave and the Drave seem to be outside either class.

5. Principal Passes.-Though the Alps form a barrier they have never formed an impassable barrier, since, from the earliest days onwards, they have been traversed first, perhaps, for purposes of war or commerce, and later by pilgrims, students and tourists. The spots at which they were crossed are called passes (this word is sometimes though rarely applied to gorges only), and are the points at which the great chain sinks to form depressions, up to which deep-cut valleys lead from the plains. Hence the oldest name for such passes is Mont (still retained in cases of the Mont Cenis and the Monte Moro), for it was many ages before this term was especially applied to the peaks of the Alps, which with a few very rare exceptions (e.g. the Monte Viso was known to the Romans as Vesulus) were long simply disregarded. The native inhabitants of the Alps were naturally the first to use the alpine passes. But to the outer world these passes first became known when the Romans traversed them in order to conquer the world beyond. In the one case we have no direct knowledge (though the Romans probably selected the passes pointed out to them by the natives as the easiest), while in the other we hear almost exclusively of the passes across the main chain or the principal passes of the Alps. For obvious reasons the Romans, having once found an easy direct pass across the main chain, did not trouble to seek for harder and more devious routes. Hence the passes that can be shown to have been certainly known to them are comparatively few in number: they are, in topographical order from west to east, the Col de l'Argentiere, the Mont Genevre, the two St Bernards, the Spliigen, the Septimer, the Brenner, the Radsta.dter Tauern, the SOlkscharte, the P16cken and the Pontebba (or Saifnitz). Of these the Mont Genevre and the Brenner were the most frequented, while it will be noticed that in the Central Alps only two passes (the Spliigen and the Septimer) were certainly known to the Romans. In fact the central portion of the Alps was by far the least Romanised and least known till the early middle ages. Thus the Simplon is first certainly mentioned in 1235, the St Gotthard (without name) in 1236, the Lukmanier in 965, the San Bernardino in 941; of course they may have been known before, but authentic history is silent as regards them till the dates specified. Even the Mont Cenis (from the 15th to the 19th century the favourite pass for travellers going from France to Italy) is first heard of in 756 only. In the 13th century many hitherto unknown passes came into prominence, even some of the easy glacier passes. It should always be borne in mind that in the Western and Central Alps there is but one ridge to cross, to which access is gained by a deep-cut valley, though often it would be shorter to cross a second pass in order to gain the plains, e.g. the Mont Genevre, that is most directly reached by the Col du Lautaret; and the Simplon, which is best gained by one of the lower passes over the western portion of the Bernese Oberland chain. On the other hand, in the Eastern Alps, it is generally necessary to cross three distinct ridges between the northern and southern plains, the central ridge being the highest and most difficult. Thus the passes which crossed a single ridge, and did not involve too great a detour through a long valley of approach, became the most important and the most popular, e.g. the Mont Cenis, Llie Great St Bernard, the St Gotthard, the Septimer and the Brenner. As time went on the travellers (with whatever object) who used the great alpine passes could not put up any longer with the bad old mule paths. A few passes (e.g. the Semmering, the Brenner, the Tenda and the Arlberg) can boast of carriage roads constructed before 1800, while those over the Umbrail and the Great St Bernard were not completed till the early years of the 10th century. Most of the carriage roads across the great alpine passes were thus constructed in the 19th century (particularly its first half), largely owing to the impetus given by Napoleon. As late as 1905, the highest pass over the main chain that had a carriage road was the Great St Bernard (8111 ft.), but three still higher passes over side ridges have roads-the Stelvio (9055 ft.), the Col du Galibier (8721 ft.), in the Dauphine Alps, and the Umbrail Pass (8242 ft.). Still more recently the main alpine chain has been subjected to the further indignity of having railway lines carried over it or through it-the Brenner and the Pontebba lines being cases of the former, and the Col de Tenda, the Mont Cenis (though the tunnel is really 17 m. to the west), the Simplon and the St Gotthard, not to speak of the side passes of the Arlberg, Albula and Pyhrn of the latter. There are also schemes (more or less advanced) for piercing the Spliigen and the Hohe Tauern, both on the main ridge, and the LOtschen Pass, on one of the external ranges. The numerous mountain railways, chiefly in Switzerland, up various peaks (e.g. the Rigi and Pilatus) and over various side passes (e.g. the Briinig and the Little Scheidegg) do not concern us here.

6. Divisions.-The Alps, within the limits indicated under (2) above, form a great range, consisting of a main chain, with ramifications, and of several parallel minor chains. They thus form a single connected whole as contrasted with the plains at their base, and nature has made no breaks therein, save at the spots where they sink to comparatively low depressions or passes. But for the sake of practical convenience it has long been usual to select certain of the best marked of these passes to serve as limits within the range, whether to distinguish several great divisions from each other, or to further break up each of these great divisions into smaller groups. As these divisions, great or small, are so to speak artificial, several systems have been proposed according to which the Alps may be divided. We give below that which seems to us to be the most satisfactory (based very largely on personal acquaintance with most parts of the range), considering, as in the case of the limits of the chain, only its topographical aspect, as it exists at the present day, while leaving it to geologists, botanists and zoologists to elaborate special divisions as required by these various sciences. Our selected divisions relate only to the High Alps between the Col de Tenda and the route over the Radstddter Tauern, while in each of the 18 subdivisions the less elevated outlying peaks are regarded as appendages of the higher group within the topographical limits of which they rise. No attempt, of course, has been made to give a complete catalogue of the peaks and passes of the Alps, while in the case of the peaks the culminating point of a lower halfdetached group has been included rather than the loftier spurs of the higher and main group; in the case of the passes, the villages or valleys they connect have been indicated, and also the general character of the route over each pass.

As regards the main divisions, three are generally distinguished; the Western Alps (chiefly French and Italian, with a small bit of the Swiss Valais) being held to extend from the Col de Tenda to the Simplon Pass, the Central Alps (all but wholly Swiss and Italian) thence to the Reschen Scheideck Pass, and the Eastern Alps (wholly Austrian and Italian, save the small Bavarian bit at the north-west angle) thence to the Radstadter Tauern route, with a bend outwards towards the south-east, as explained under (2) in order to include the higher summits of the SouthEastern Alps. Strictly speaking, we should follow the Reschen Scheideck route down the Adige valley, but as this would include in the Central Alps the Ortler and some other of the highest Tirolese summits, it is best (remembering the artificial character of the division) to draw a line from Nlals southwards either over the Umbrail Pass (the old historical pass) or the Stelvio (wellknown only since the carriage road was built over it in the first quarter of the 19th century) to the head of the Valtellina, and then over the Aprica Pass (as the Bergamasque Alps properly belong to the Central Alps) to the Oglio valley or the Val Camonica, and down that valley to the Lake of Iseo and Brescid. Assuming these three main divisions, we must now consider in detail the 18 sub-divisions which we distinguish; the first 5 forming the Western Alps, the next 7 the Central Alps, and the rest the Eastern Alps, the heights throughout being, of course, given in English feet and representing the latest measurements.

I. Western Alps I. Maritime Alps (from the Col de Tenda to the Col de l'Argentiere).

Chief Peaks of the Maritime Alps. Punta dell' Argentera. 10,794 Mont Tinibras. 9,948 Cima dei Gelas. .. 10,286 Mont Enchastraye 9,695 Monte Matto. ... 10,128 Monte Bego. 9,426 Mont Pelat. ... 10,017 Mont Monnier. 9,246 Mont Clapier. ... 9,994 Rocca dell' Abisso 9,039 Chief Passes of the Maritime Alps. Passo del Pagarin (Vesubie Valley to Valdieri), snow.. 9,236 Col di Fremamorta (Tinee Valley to the Baths of Valdieri), bridle path.. 8,688 Bassa di Druos (same to same), bridle path.. 8,629 Passo di Collalunga (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), bridle path. 8,531 Coll dell' Agnel (Tenda to Valdieri), foot path. 8,426 Col della Ciriegia (St Martin Vesubie to the Baths of Valdieri), bridle path 8,370 Col des Granges Communes (St Etienne de Tinee to Barce lonnette), bridle path. 8,242 Col de Pourriac (Tinee Valley to Argentera), foot path 8,222 Col della Finestre (St Martin de Vesubie to Valdieri), bridle path. 8,107 Col di Guercia (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), foot path.. 8,042 Col della Lombarda (same to same), bridle path.. 7,858 Col de la Cayolle (Var Valley to Barcelonnette), carriage road 7,717 Col di Santa Anna (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), bridle path 7,605 Col del Sabbione (Tenda to Valdieri), bridle path 7,428 Col d'Allos or de Valgelaye (Verdon Valley to Barcelonnette), carriage road. 7,382 Col de l'Argentiere (Barcelonnette to Cuneo), carriage road. 6,545 Col de Tenda (Tenda to Cuneo), carriage road, railway beneath. 6,145 2. Cottian Alps (from the Col de l'Argentiere to the Mont Cenis and westwards to the Col du Galibier).

Chief Peaks of the Cottian Alps. Monte Viso. ... 12,609 Dents d'Ambin. Viso di Vallante. .. 12,048 Mont d'Ambin. Aiguille de Scolette.. 11,500 Pointe de la Font Sancte Aiguille de Chambeyron. 11,155 Punta Ferrant. .

Grand Rubren.. 11,142 Visolotto.. .

Brec de Chambeyron. 11,116 Rochebrune. .. Rognosa d'Etache.. 11,106 Punta Sommeiller. .

11,096 11,080 11,057 11,037 II,001 10,906 10,896 Bric Froid .

Grand Glayza.. Rognosa di Sestrieres Panestrel Roche du Grand Galibier Peou Roc Pic du Pelvat. � Pointe Haute de Mary � Pic du Thabor.. � Mont Thabor. .

Col d'Ambin (Exilles to Bramans), snow.. Col de St Veran (Val Varaita to the Queyras Valley), foot path. Col d'Etache (Bardonneche to Bramans), bridle path Col dell' Agnello (Val Varaita to the Queyras Valley), bridle path. Col Girardin (Ubaye Valley to the Queyras Valley), bridle path.. 8,855 Col de Sautron (Val Maira to Barcelonnette), bridle path. 8,823 Col de Longet (Ubaye Valley to Val Varaita), bridle path. 8,767 Col de Mary or de Maurin (Ubaye Valley to Val Maira), bridle path. 8,708 Col d'Abries or de Prali (Perosa to Abries), bridle path. 8,695 Col de la Roue (Bardonneche to Modane), bridle path 8,419 Col de Frejus (same to same), carriage road, beneath which is the so-called Mont Cenis railway tunnel. .

Col de Clapier (Bramans to Susa), bridle path.. Col d'Izouard (Briancon to the Queyras Valley), carriage road. Col de la Croix (Torre Pellice to Abries), bridle path Petit Mont Cenis (Bramans to the Mont Cenis Plateau), bridle path. 7,166 Col de Vars (Ubaye Valley to the Queyras Valley), carriage road. .. 6,939 Mont Cenis (Lanslebourg to Susa), carriage road. 6,893 Col de Sestrieres (Pignerol to Cesanne), carriage road 6,631 Mont Genevre (Briancon to Cesanne), carriage road. 6,083 Col des Echelles de Planpinet (Briancon to Bardonneche), partly carriage road 5,774 3. Dauphine Alps (from the Col du Galibier, westwards and southwards).

Chief Peaks of the Dauphine Alps. Chief Passes of the Dauphine Alps. Col de la Lauze (St Christophe to La Grave), snow.. 11.625 Col des Avalanches (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow.. 11,520 Col de la Casse Deserte (La Berarde to La Grave), snow. 11,516 Col Emile Pic (La Grave to Vallouise), snow. .. 11,490 Col des Ecrins (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow.. 11,205 Col du Glacier Blanc (La Grave to Vallouise), snow. � 10,854 Col du Sele (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow 10,834 Breche de la Meije (La Berarde to la Grave), snow.. 10,827 Col de la Temple (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow. 10,772 Col des Aiguilles d'Arves (Valloire to St Jean d'Arves), snow 10,335 Col du Says (La Berarde to the Val Gaudemar), snow. 10,289 Col du Clot des Cavales (La Berarde to La Grave), snow. 10,263 Col du Loup du Valgaudemar (Vallouise to the Val Gaude mar), snow. .. .. 10,210 Col Lombard (La Grave to St Jean d'Arves), snow.. 10,171 Breche des Grandes Rousses (Allemont to Clavans), snow. 10,171 Col du Sellar (Vallouise to the Val Gaudemar), snow. 10,063 Col de la Muande (St Christophe to the Val Gaudemar), snow. ... 10,037 Col des Quirlies (St Jean d'Arves to Clavans), snow. 9,679 [[[Peaks And Passes]] Col du Goleon (La Grave to Valloire), foot path 9,449 Pas de la Cavale (Vallouise to Champoleon), carriage road. 8,990 Col d'Orcieres (Dormillouse to Orcieres), bridle path.. 8,859 Col de l'Infernet (La Grave to St Jean d'Arves), foot path 8,826 Col du Galibier (Lautaret Hospice to St Michel de Maurienne), carriage road 8,721 Breche de Valsenestre (Bourg d'Oisans to Valsenestre), foot 8,642 path.. .. .. ... 8,642 Col de Vallonpierre (Val Gaudemar to Champoleon), foot 8,596 path. .. ... 8,596 Col de Val Estrete (same to same), foot path. .. 8,596 Col de Vaurze (Val Gaudemar to Val Jouffrey), foot path. 8,531 Col de Martignare (La Grave to St Jean d'Arves), foot path 8,531 Col des Tourettes (Orcieres to Chateauroux), bridle path. 8,465 Col de la Muzelle (St Christophe to Valsenestre), foot path 8,202 Col de l'Eychauda (Vallouise to Monestier), bridle path. Col d'Arsine (La Grave to Monestier), bridle path Col des Pres Nouveaux (Le Freney to St Jean d'Arves), bridle path 7,523 Col des Sept Laux (Allevard to Bourg d'Oisans), bridle path 7,166 Col du Lautaret (Briancon to Bourg d'Oisans), carriage road 6,808 Col de la Croix de Fer (Bourg d'Oisans to St Jean d'Arves), carriage road.. 6,765 Col du Glandon (Bourg d'Oisans to La Chambre), carriage road Col de l'Alpe de Venosc (Venosc to Le Freney), bridle path Col d'Ornon (Bourg d'Oisans to La Mure), carriage road. Col Bayard (La Mure to Gap), carriage road Col de la Croix Haute (Grenoble to Veynes and Gap), rail way line over 3,829 4. Graian Alps (from the Mont Cenis to the Little St Bernard Pass). These are usually divided into three groups, the Central (the watershed between the two passes named), the Western or French, and the Eastern or Italian; in the following lists the initials " C," " W," and " E " show to which group each peak and pass belongs.

Chief Peaks of the Graian Alps. Grand Paradis (E).. 13,324 Grande Aiguille Rousse Grivola (E).. 13,022 (C)... Grande Casse (W).. 12,668 Granta Parey (C). .

Mont Pourri (W).. 12,428 Roc du Mulinet (C) .

Mont Herbetet (E).. 12,396 Aiguille Pers (C). Pointe de Charbonel (C) 12,336 Pointe de la Sana (W) Aiguille de la Grande Cima dell' Auille (C) .

Sassiere (C).. 12,323 Pointe de I'Echelle (W) Dent Parrachee (W). 12,179 Punta Foura (E) .

Tour du Grand St Pierre Pointe des Sengies (E) (E) 12,113 Uja di Ciamarella (C) 12,061 Cima di Charforon (E) 12,025 Grande Motte (W). 12,018 Albaron (C).. 12,015 Roccia Viva (E).. 11,976 Levanna (C).. .

Bessanese (C). .

Punta di Gaij (E). Dome de l'Arpont (W). Pointe de Ronce (C).. Bec de l'Invergnan (C). Tsanteleina (C) .

Dome de Chasseforet (W) Croce Rossa (C).. Aiguille de Peclet (W). Mont Emilius (E) Punta d'Arnas (C) Aiguille de Polset (W). Rochemelon (C).. Mont Chalanson(C). .

Tersiva (E).. Grande Traversiere (C). Tete du Rutor (C). .

Chief Passes of the Graian Alps. Col de la Grande Rousse (Rhemes Valley to the Val Grisanche), snow (C). Col de Gebroulaz (Arc Valley to Moutiers Tarentaise), snow (W) � Col de Monei (Cogne to Locana), snow (E) Col du Grand Paradis (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), snow (E).. .

Col du Charforon (same to same), snow (E).. Col de Teleccio (Cogne to Locana), snow (E) .

Col de Lauzon (Cogne to the Val Savaranche), bridle path (E) Col du Bouquetin (Bonneval to Val d'Isere), snow (C). Col de St Grat (Val Grisanche to La Thuille), snow (C). Col de l'Herbetet (Cogne to the Val Savaranche), snow (E) Col du Collerin (Bessans to Balme), snow (C) .

9,364 9,331 9,144 9,003 11,424 11,395 11,382 11,323 11,319 11,306 I 1,260 11,188 11,182 II,109 10,975 Col du Grand Etret (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), snow (E). .. .. .. 10,361 Pointe des Cerces.. 1 0,434 Chief Passes in the Cottian Alps. Col Sommeiller (Bardonneche to Bramans), snow 9,718 Col de la Traversette (Crissolo to Abries), mainly bridle path beneath pass tunnel made in 1478-1480. .. 9,679 8,294 8,173 7,835 7,576 7,970 7,874 6,401 5,446 4,462 4,088 Pointe de la Gliere (W) Pointe de la Galise (C) Pointe de la Traversiere (C) 10,962 Pointe de Mean Martin (W). 10,949 11 ,943 Punta Lavina (E). � 10,854 11,917 Ormelune (C). 10,771 11,887 Roche Chevriere (W). 10,768 11,874 Signal du Mont Iseran (C) 10,634 11,871 Pointe de la Rechasse (W) 10,575 11,838 Grand Assaly (C). � 10,414 11,831 Roisebanque (E).. 10,381 11,802 Becca di Nona (E).. 10,309 11,703 Torre d'Ovarda (C). 10,089 11,700 Pointe du Pousset (E) 11,677 Dome de Val d'Isere (C) 11,615 Uja di Mondrone (C) .

11,608 Bellagarda (C). .. 11,605 Monte Marzo (E) 11,582 Petit Mont Blanc de 11,526 Pralognan (W).. 11,467 Mont Jouvet (W).. 11,438 Monte Civrari (C). .

9,994 9,951 9,725 9,643 9,023 8,809 8,409 7,553 11,483 1 1,385 11,247 10,988 10,929 10,913 10,831 10,827 10,827 10,686 Io,506 10,693 Tagliaferro. ... 9,725 10,693 Riffelhorn 9,617 10,630 Pointe Percee du Reposoir 9,029 10,588 Crammont. .. 8,980 10,552 Pointe des Fours. 8,921 10,525 Pointe du Colloney�8,832 10,512 Catogne. .. �8,527 10,289 Monte BO. .. 8,386 10,260 Mont Joly. .�8,29, 10,201 Brevent. 8,28.

10,099 Pointe de Salles. 8,183 10,073 Aiguille de Varens.. 8,163 9,935 Mont Chetif ... 7,687 9, 6,132 9,738 1784 Sale Mole ve (highest point) 4,528 9,987 Mont Favre. Sasseneire .

Grand Golliaz Tour Sallieres Pizzo Bianco .

Latelhorn Schwarzhorn (Augstbord) Gornergrat .

Pointe de Lechaud .

Buet Mont Ruan Mont Neri Bella Tola. ... Pointe de Tanneverge Belvedere (Aigs. Rouges) Col de Bassac (Rhemes Valley to the Val Grisanche), snow(C) 10,345 Col du Carro (Bonneval to Ceresole), snow (C). .. 10,302 Col d'Arbole (Combos to Brissogne), snow (E). 10,292 Col de la Goletta(Va ld'Isere to the Rhemes Valley), snow (C) 10,237 Col de Rhemes (same to same), snow (C). 10,174 Col de la Grande Casse (Pralognan to the Premou Glen), snow (W). 10,171 Col de Sea (Bonneval to Forno Alpi Graie), snow (C).. 10,115 Col de l'Autaret (Bessans to Usseglio), foot path (C).. 10,073 Col de Girard (Bonneval to Forno Alpi Graie), snow (C). Col Rosset (Val Savaranche to the Rhemes Valley), bridle path (C). .. 9,922 Col d'Arnas (Bessans to Balme), snow (C). .. 9,889 Col de la Galise (Ceresole to Val d'Isere), snow (C). 9,836 Col de Sort (Val Savaranche to the Rhemes Valley), partly bridle path (C).. Quecees de Tignes (Val d'Isere to Termignon), snow (W). Col della Nouva (Cogne to Pont Canavese), partly bridle path (E) .

Col de Garin (Aosta to Cogne), foot path (E).. Collarin d'Arnas (Balme to Usseglio), snow (C) Finestra del Torrent (Rhemes Valley to the Val Grisanche), foot path (C) .

Fenetre de Champorcher (Cogne to Champorcher), bridle path (E) Col de Vaudet (Isere Valley to the Val Grisanche), foot path Col de Bardoney (Cogne to Pont Canavese), snow (E). Col de Chaviere (Modane to Pralognan), foot path (W). Col de la Leisse (Tignes to Termignon), snow (W) Col du Mont Iseran (Bonneval to Val d'Isere), bridle path (C). Ghicet di Sea (Balme to Forno Alpi Graie), foot path (C). Col de la Sachette (Tignes to Bourg St Maurice), foot path Col du) Palet (Tignes to M06tiers Tarentaise or Bourg St Maurice), bridle path (W) 8,721 Col du Mont (Ste Foy to the Val Grisanche), bridle path (C) 8,681 Col de la Croix de Nivolet (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), bridle path (E). 8,665 Col della Crocetta (Ceresole to Forno Alpi Graie), bridle path (C) Col de la Platiere (St Jean de Maurienne to Moitiers Taren taise), partly bridle path (W) 8,531 Col de la Vanoise (Pralognan to Termignon), bridle path (W) 8,291 Col des Encombres (St Michel de Maurienne to Moutiers Tarentaise), bridle path (W). .. 7,668 Little St Bernard (Aosta to M06tiers Tarentaise), carriage road (C). 7,179 Col de la Madeleine (La Chambre to M06tiers Tarentaise), bridle path (W). .. ... 6,509 5. Pennine Alps (from the Little St Bernard to the Simplon Pass). This range contains all the highest peaks in the Alps, save the Finsteraarhorn (14,026) in the Bernese Oberland.

Chief Peaks of the Pennine Alps. 9,735 9,646 Chief Passes of the Pennine Alps. Sesiajoch (Zermatt to Alagna), snow.. 14,515 9,623 Col de la Brenva (Courmayeur to Chamonix), snow 14,217 9,411 Domjoch (Randa to Saas), snow. 14,062 9,351 Lysjoch (Zermatt to Gressoney), snow 14,033 Mischabeljoch (Zermatt to Saas), snow 12,651 9,341 Alphubel Pass (same to same), snow 12,474 Adler Pass (same to same), snow. 12,461 9,311 Moming Pass (Zermatt to Zinal), snow 12,287 Schwarzthor (Zermatt to Ayas), snow. .. 12,274 9,305 Col de Triolet (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow. 12,110 9,295 Ried Pass (St Niklaus to Saas), snow. .. II,800 9,206 New Weissthor (Zermatt to Macugnaga), snow. 11,746 9,121 Allalin Pass (Zermatt to Saas), snow.. 11,713 Col de Valpelline (Zermatt to Aosta), snow. 11,687 9,0$5 Biesjoch (Randa to Turtmann), snow. � 11,644 8,973 Triftjoch (Zermatt to Zinal), snow. .. 11,615 Col d'Argentiere (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow 11,536 8,954 Col du Sonadon (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de Bagnes), snow. .. .. .. 11,447 Col de Talefre (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow. 11,430 Col d'Herens (Zermatt to Evolena), snow.. 11,418 Col Durand (Zermatt to Zinal), snow. 11,398 Col des Maisons Blanches (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de Bagnes), snow. .. 11,241 8,649 Col de Bertol (Arolla to the Col d'Herens), snow. 11,200 Col de Miage (Contamines to Courmayeur), snow. 11,077 Col du Grant (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow.. 11,060 Col du Mont Rouge (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), snow. ... 10,962 Col du Chardonnet (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow.. 10,909 Col de St Theodule (Zermatt to Chatillon), snow.. 10,899 Col du Tour (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow. 10,762 Fenetre de Saleinaz (Saleinaz Glacier to Trient Glacier),snow 10,709 Col de Tracuit (Zinal to Turtmann), snow. .. 10,670 Zwischbergen Pass (Saas to Gondo), snow. .. 10,657 Col d'Oren (Val de Bagnes to the Valpelline), snow.. 10,637 Col de Seilon (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), snow 10,499 Col du Cret (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), snow 10,329 Col de Valcournera (Val Tournanche to the Valpelline), 12,700 snow.. .

12,609 Col de Collon (Arolla to Aosta), snow. .. 12,586 Col de Valsorey (Bourg St Pierre to Aosta), snow. 12,579 Col de Chermontane (Val de Bagnes to Arolla), snow 12 ,543 Cimes Blanches (Val Tournanche to Ayas), bridle path 12,540 Col de Torrent (Evolena to the Val de Torrent), bridle path 12,527 Augstbord Pass (St Niklaus to Turtmann), bridle path. 12 ,474 Col de Crete Seche (Val de Bagnes to the Valpelline), snow 12,471 Col de Breuil (Bourg St Maurice to La Thuille), snow .

12 ,353 Col d'Olen (Alagna to Gressoney), bridle path. 9,420 12,320 Monte Moro (Saas to Macugnaga), partly bridle path. 12,304 Pas de Chevres (Arolla to the Val d'Heremence), foot path 12,264 Antrona Pass (Saas to Antrona), partly bridle path.. 12,159 Col de Sorebois (Zinal to the Val de Torrent), bridle path. 12,100 Col de Vessona (Valpelline to the St Barthelemy Glen), foot 12,058 path. .. 9,167 12,051 Col de Fenetre (Val de Bagnes to Aosta), bridle path 9,141 11,956 Z'Meiden Pass (Zinal to Turtmann), bridle path. 9,095 11,828 Turlo Pass (Alagna to Macugnaga), foot path. 8,977 11,615 Col de Fenetre (Great St Bernard to the Swiss Val Ferret), 11 ,539 bridle path. .. .. 8,855 11,503 Bettafurka (Ayas to Gressoney), bridle path. 8,780 11,489 Col du Mont Tondu (Contamines to Courmayeur), snow. 8,498 11,447 Col Serena (Great St Bernard to Courmayeur), foot path. 8,327 11,293 Col Ferret ' (Courmayeur to Orsieres), carriage road in 11,280 progress. 8,311 11,086 Col de la Seigne (Chapieux to Courmayeur) bridle path 8,242 10,985 Col de Susanfe (Champery to Salvan), foot path. 8,202 10,962 Col du Bonhomme (Contamines to Chapieux), bridle path. 8,147 10,913 Col de Valdobbia (Gressoney to the Val Sesia), bridle path 8,134 10,893 Great St Bernard (Martigny to Aosta), carriage road. 8,111 10,876 Col de Sagerou (Sixt to Champery), foot path.. 7,917 10,742 Col de Moud (Alagna to Rima and Varallo), bridle path. 7,622 10,696 Col d'Anterne (Sixt to Servos), bridle path. 7,425 Mont Blanc.. 15,782 Monte Rosa (Dufour spitze) 15,217 Nord End (Monte Rosa) 15,132 Dom (Mischabelhorner) 14,942 Lyskamm. .. 14,889 Weisshorn 14,804 Matterhorn. 14,782 Taschhorn.. 14,758 Mont Maudit 14,669 Dent Blanche 14,318 Dome du Goiter 14,210 Grand Combin 14,164 Castor 13,879 Zinal Rothhorn 13,856 Alphubel 13,803 Grandes Jorasses� 13,797 Rimpfischhorn� 13,790 Strahlhorn .� 13,751 Dent d'Herens 13,715 Zermatt Breithorn� 13,685 Aiguille Verte .� 13,541 Ober Gabelhorn.. � 13,364 Aiguille de Bionnassay � 13,341 Allalinhorn. .. � 13,236 Weissmies.. � 13,226 Aiguille du Grant 13,170 Laquinhorn. .. 13,140 Rossbodenhorn.. 13,128 Grand Cornier 13,022 Aiguille de Trelatete. 12,832 Aiguille d'Argentiere. 12,819 Ruinette.. �. � 12,727 Aiguille de Triolet. � 12,717 Mont Blanc de Seilon. Aiguille du Midi Tour Noir Aiguille des Glaciers. Mont Dolent 10,325 10,270 ? 10,214 9,777 9,593 9,492 9,475 9,446 Aiguille du Chardonnet Cima di Jazzi. Balfrin. Pigne d'Arolla .

Mont Velan. Aiguille du Dru Tete Blanche .

L'Eveque. Mont Pleureur. DOme de Miage.

Lo Besso. Aiguille de la Za Mont Collon .

Diablons. Aiguille de Tour Mont Gele Bec de Luseney. � Aiguille de Grepon. Ch�au des Dames � Aiguille des Charmoz Aiguille du Tacul. Grand Tournalin.. Pointe de Rosa Blanche Mont Avril.. Grande Rochere 9,390 9,354 9,331 9,269 Corno Bianco. .. Grauhaupt. ... Pointe d'Orny. .. Dent du Midi.. .

Col d'Egua (Rima to the Val Anzasca), bridle path.. 7,336 Col de Balme (Chamonix to the Trient Valley), bridle path. 7,221 Simplon Pass (Brieg to Domo d'Ossola), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath 6,592 Col de Checouri (Courmayeur to the Lac de Combal), bridle path. 6,431 Baranca Pass (Varallo to the Val Anzasca), bridle path. 5,971 Col de Voza (Chamonix to Contamines), bridle path.. 5,496 Col de la Forclaz (Chamonix to St Gervais), bridle path. 5,105 Col de la Forclaz (Trient Valley to Martigny), carriage road 4,987 II.

6. Bernese Oberland (from the Lake of Geneva to the Furka, the Reuss Valley and the Lake of Lucerne). This general name seems best to describe the range in question, though, of course, portions of it are in Cantons other than that of Berne, viz. Vaud, Fribourg, the Valais, Lucerne, Uri and Unterwalden.

Chief Peaks of the Bernese Oberland. Finsteraarhorn. .. 14,026 Wellhorn.. 10,486 Aletschhorn.. 13,721 Mettenberg.. 10,194 Jungfrau. .. 13,669 Lafelhorn. ... 10,165 Minch.. � 13,468 Grand Muveran.. 10,043 Gross Schreckhorn.. 13,386 Gross Wendenstock. 9,987 Gross Fiescherhorn.. 13,285 Sparrhorn. .. 9,928 Eiger 13,042 Torrenthorn 9,853 Bietschhorn. 12,970 Grande Dent de Morcles 9,777 Gross Wannehorn 12,812 Schilthorn. ... 9,754 Gross Nesthorn.. 12 ,533 Eggishorn. .. 9,626 Lauterbrunnen Breithorn 12,399 Uri Rothstock 9,620 Balmhorn.. 12,176 Schwarzhorn(Grindelwald)9,613 Wetterhorn (Mittelhorn) 12,166 Gross Siedelhorn �9,452 Wetterhorn (Hash JungAlbristhorn. .. 9,069 frau).. 12,149 Rothihorn. 9,052 Wetterhorn (Rosenhorn) 12,I10 Faulhorn. 8,803 Blumlisalphorn.. 12,044 Gummfluh. 8,074 Gross Doldenhorn 11,966 Sulegg.. 7,914 Altels 11,930 Vanil Noir.. 7,858 Dammastock. 11,920 Niesen.. 7,763 Galenstock 11,802 Brienzer Rothhorn. 7,714 Sustenhorn 11,523 Tour d'Ai. 7,658 Gspaltenhorn. 11,293 Hohgant. 7,225 Fleckistock. ... 11 ,21 4 Stockhorn. 7,192 Gross Hiihnerstock.. 10,985 Kaiseregg 7,182 Ewigschneehorn. .. 10,929 Pilatus (Tomlishorn) 6,995 Ritzlihorn 10,768 Chamossaire... 6,943 Wildhorn. 10,709 Gemmenalphorn. 6,772 Wildstrubel.. 10,673 Rochers de Naye. 6,710 Diablerets. � 10,650 Moleson 6,582 Titlis 10,627 Dent de Jaman 6,165 Gross Spannort.. 10,516 Napf 4,629 Chief Passes of the Bernese Oberland. Lauithor (Lauterbrunnen to the Eggishorn), snow Monchjoch (Grindelwald to the Eggishorn), snow Jungfraujoch (Wengern Alp to the Eggishorn), snow Strahlegg Pass (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow. Griinhornlucke (Great Aletsch Glacier to the Fiescher Glacier), snow. Oberaarjoch (Grimsel to the Eggishorn), snow. Gauli Pass (Grimsel to Meiringen), snow,.

Petersgrat (Lauterbrunnen to the Lotschenthal), snow Lbtschenliicke (Lotschenthal to the Eggishorn), snow Lauteraarsattel (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow. Beichgrat (Lotschenthal to the Bel Alp), snow. Lammernjoch (Lenk to the Gemmi), snow. Triftlimmi (Rhone Glacier to the Gadmen Valley), snow Sustenlimmi (Stein Alp to Goeschenen), snow.. Gamchiliicke (Kien Valley to Lauterbrunnen), snow 7. Lepontine Alps (from the Simplon to the Splugen and south of the Furka and Oberalp Passes). The eastern portion of this range, from the St Gotthard Pass to the Splugen, is sometimes named the Adula Alps.

Chief Peaks of the Monte Leone. .. 11,684 Rheinwaldhorn Guferhorn Blindenhorn Basodino Tambohorn Helsenhorn Wasenhorn Ofenhorn Cherbadung Piz Medel Scopi Pizzo Rotondo Pizzo dei Piani Piz Terri Piz Aul Pizzo di Pesciora Wyttenwasserstock Campo Tencia. Leckihorn. Bruschghorn. Alperschellihorn .

Chief Passes of the Lepontine Alps. Zapport Pass (Hinterrhein to Malvaglia and Biasca), snow. 10,105 Gtiferlticke (Kanal Glen to the Lenta Glen), snow. 9,777 Lentaliicke (Hinterrhein to Vals Platz), snow.. 9,692 Hohsand Pass (Binn to Tosa Falls), snow. 9,603 Lecki Pass (Wyttenwasser Glen to the Mutten Glen), snow 9,554 Passo Rotondo (Airolo to Oberwald), snow 9,449 Kaltwasser Pass (Simplon Hospice to Veglia Alp), snow. 9,351 Scaradra Pass (Vals Platz to Olivone), foot path. 9,088 Satteltelucke (Vals Platz to Vrin), foot path.. 9,082 Ritter Pass (Binn to Veglia Alp), snow. 8,832 Cavanna Pass (Realp to the Val Bedretto), snow.. 8,566 Scatta Minoja (Devero to the Val Formazza), bridle path. 8,521 Bocca di Cadlimo (Airolo to the Lukmanier Pass), foot path 8,340 Valserberg (Hinterrhein to Vals Platz), bridle path 8,225 Safierberg (Splugen to Safien Platz), bridle path. 8,170 Geisspfad Pass (Binn to Devero), foot path.. 8,120 Gries Pass (Ulrichen to Tosa Falls), bridle path. 8,098 Passo di Naret (Fusio to Airolo), bridle path.. 8,015 Nufenen Pass (Ulrichen to Airolo), bridle path. 8,006 Diesrut Pass (Vrin to the Somvix Glen), bad bridle path. 7,953 Albrun Pass (Binn to Devero and Baceno), bridle path 7,907 Greina Pass (Olivone to the Somvix Glen), bridle path � 7,743 San Giacomo Pass (Airolo to Tosa Falls), bridle path 7,573 Passo di Buffalora(Val Mesocco to the Val Calanca),foot path 7,431 Passo dell' Uomo (Airolo to the Lukmanier Pass),bridle path 7,258 Splugen Pass (Thusis to Chiavenna), carriage road. 6,946 St Gotthard Pass (Andermatt to Airolo), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath. .. ... 6,936 San Bernardino Pass (Thusis to Bellinzona), carriage road 6,769 Lukmanier Pass (Disentis to Olivone), carriage road.. 6,289 8. The Range of the Todi (from the Oberalp Pass to the Klausen Pass).

Chief Peaks of the Range of the Todi. TSdi 11,887 Piz Segnes 10,178 Bifertenstock. 11,241 Piz Giuf 10,165 Piz Urlaun. 11,060 Crispalt 10,105 Oberalpstock. .. 10,926 Bristenstock 10,086 Gross Scheerhorn.. 10,814 Selbsanft 9,938 Claridenstock.. 10,729 Vorab 9,925 Dussistock 10,703 Tschingelhbrner (Elm) 9,351 Ringelspitz. 10,667 Piz Sol (Grauehorner) � 9,348 Brigelserhorner (highest) 10,663 Calanda 9,213 Grosse Windg.11e... 10,473 Karpfstock. 9,177 Hausstock. ... 10,342 Mageren. .. 8,294 Gross Ruchen.. .. 10,289 Murtschenstock.. 8,012 Chief Passes of the Range of the Todi. Clariden Pass (Amsteg to Linththal), snow .

Planura Pass (same to same), snow. Kammlilucke or Scheerjoch (Maderanerthal to Unter schachen), snow .

Sardona Pass (Flims to Ragaz), snow .

Sand Alp Pass (Disentis to Linththal), snow Brunni Pass (Disentis to Amsteg), snow .

Segnes Pass (Elm to Flims), foot path Kisten Pass (Linththal to Ilanz), bad bridle path Panixer Pass (Elm to Ilanz), bad bridle path. Kriizli Pass (Amsteg to Sedrun), foot path Foo or Ramin Pass (Elm to Weisstannen), bridle path Oberalp Pass (Andermatt to Disentis), carriage road Klausen Pass (Altdorf to Linththal), carriage road .

12,140 � 11,680 � 11,385 10,995 � 10,844 � 10,607 � 10,519 � 10,516 � 10,512 � 10,355 0,289.10,276 � 10,200 � Io,181 Tschingel Pass (Lauterbrunnen to Kandersteg), 9,265 g (g), snow 9,265 Hohthiirli Pass (Kandersteg to the Kien Valley), foot path 8,882 Lutschen Pass (Kandersteg to the Liitschenthal), snow 8,842 Sefinenfurka(Lauterbrunnen to the Kien Valley), foot path 8,583 Wendenjoch (Engelberg to the Gadmen Valley), snow. 8,544 Furtwangsattel(Guttannen to the Gadmen Valley), foot path.. .. .. ... 8,393 Furka Pass (Rhone Glacier to Andermatt), carriage road. 7,992 Rawil Pass (Sion to Lenk), bridle path. 7,924 Gemmi Pass (Kandersteg to Leukerbad), bridle path. 7,641 Surenen Pass (Engelberg to Altdorf), foot path.. 7,563 Susten Pass (Meiringen to Wassen), partly carriage road. 7,422 Sanetsch Pass (Sion to Saanen), bridle path. .. 7,331 Joch Pass (Meiringen to Engelberg), bridle path.. 7,267 Grimsel Pass (Meiringen to the Rhone Glacier), carriage road 7,100 Kleine Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Lauterbrunnen), railway over. .. ... 6,772 Col de Cheville (Sion to Bex), bridle path.. 6,723 Grosse Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Meiringen), bridle path 6,434 Col de Jaman (Montreux to Montbovon), mule path over, railway tunnel beneath. .. 4,974 Brunig Pass (Meiringen to Lucerne), railway over.. 3,396 11,14 9 11,132 II,103 10,749 10,749 10,742 10,680 10,6 37 10,542 10,509 10,499 10,489 10,361 10,338 10,250 10,247 10,119 10,089 10,069 10,020 9,991 Lepontine Alps. Piz Blas.. 9,918 Monte Giove. 9,876 Pizzo Centrale. 9,853 Pizzas d'Annarosa 9,850 Piz Beverin.. 9,843 Weisshorn (Splugen) 9,$17 Pizzo Lucendro. 9,708 Piz Tomiil.. 9,676 Piz Cavel. 9, 6 59 Barenhorn 9, 6 20 Six Madun (Badus) 9,619 Piz Muraun. 9,512 Zervreilerhorn. 9,508 Monte Cistella. 9,353 Piz Lukmanier. 9,115 Monte Prosa. 8,983 Pizzo Columbh. 8,363 Monte Camoghe 7,303 Piz Mundaun. 6,775 Monte Generoso. 5,591 Monte San Salvatore 3,004 9. The Alps of North-Eastern Switzerland (north of the Klausen Pass) Chief Peaks of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps. Glarnisch (highest) Bbser Faulen.. Santis .

Altmann Faulfirst Alvier. .. .. .

Kurfursten (highest). Speer 9,580 Gross Mythen.. 9,200 Rigikulm. 8,216 Hoher Kasten.. 7,999 Rossberg 7,9 2 5 Zugerberg (Hochwacht) 7,753 Albis Hochwacht.. 7,576 Uetliberg. .

6,411 6,240 5,906 5,899 5,194 3,255 2,887 2,864 Chief Passes of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps. Ruosalperkulm (Schachen Valley to the Muota Valley), foot path.. Karren Alp Pass (Muota Valley to Linththal), foot path Kinzigkulm Pass (Schachen Valley to the Muota Valley), foot path .

Saasberg Pass (Einsiedeln to Glarus), foot path. Kamor Pass (Appenzell to Rai), bridle path. Saxerlucke (Appenzell to Sax), foot path.. Schwein Alp Pass (Waggithal to the Klon Glen), bridle path. Pragel Pass (Muotathal to Glarus), carriage road in progress Hacken Pass (Schwyz to Einsiedeln), foot path Holzegg Pass (same to same), bridle path Ibergeregg Pass (Schwyz to Iberg and Einsiedeln), carriage road 7,126 6,877 6,811 6,227 5,512 5,417 5,158 5,099 4,616 4,613 Krazeren Pass (Nesslau to Urnasch), bridle path. 3,993 io. Bernina Alps (from the Maloja to the Reschen Scheideck and the Stelvio, south and east of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine and north of the Valtellina).

Chief Peaks of the Bernina Alps. Piz Bernina. 13,304 Piz Zupo 13,131 Monte di Scerscen. 13,116 Piz Roseg 12,934 Piz Pala 12,835 Crast' Aguzza. 12,704 Piz Morteratsch 12,317 Monte della Disgrazia 12,067 Pizzo di Verona. 11,359 Cima di Piazzi. 11,283 Cima di Castello. 11,155 Cima Viola.. 11,103 Pizzo Cengalo. 11,070 Cima di Rosso I 1,060 Pizzo Scalino. 10,903 Pizzo Badile.. 10,863 Corno di Campo. 10,844 Pizzo di Dosde. 10,762 Cima di Saoseo. 10,752 Piz Languard Piz Sesvenna Piz Pisoc.

Piz Murtarol Piz Quatervals.. Pizzo della Margna. Cima di Redasc6 Piz Lischanna Pizzo di Sena Piz Casana.. Monte Foscagno Pizzo del Teo. Pizzo del Ferro. Piz Umbrail. Zwei Schwestern Monte Braulio. Monte Spluga. Monte Massuccio Mont la Schera 10,568 � 10,427 10,424 10,358 10,355 10,299 10,204 10,099 10,0 79 10,oio 10,007 '0,007 9,955 9,784 9,777 9,321 9,239 8,494 Chief Passes of the Bernina Alps. Fuorcla Bellavista (Pontresina to Chiesa, in Val Malenco), snow .

Fuorcla Crast' Aguzza (same to same), snow Fuorcla Tschierva (same to same), snow .

Fuorcla Sella (same to same), snow � Passo di Bondo (Bondo to the Baths of Masino), snow Passo di Castello (Maloja to Morbegno), snow .

Passo Tremoggia (Sils to Chiesa), snow. .

Passo di Mello (Chiareggio to Val Masino), snow. Diavolezza Pass(Bernina road to the Morteratsch Glen), snow Passo di Dosde (Val Grosina to Val Viola Bormina), foot path.. ... Passo di Sacco (Bernina road to Grosio), foot path. Passo di Zocca (Vicosoprano to Val Masino), snow .

Casana Pass (Scanfs to Livigno), bridle path. .

Muretto Pass (Maloja to Chiesa), partly snow.. Umbrail Pass or Wermserjoch (Munster Valley to the Stelvio road), carriage road Passo di Val Viola (Bernina road to Bormio), bridle path Giufplan Pass (Ofen road to Fraele), bridle path. Bernina Pass (Pontresina to Tirano), carriage road Forcola di Livigno (Bernina Pass to Livigno), small carriage road.. Cruschetta Pass (Schuls by Scarl to Taufers), bridle path .

Passo di Verva (Bormio to Grosio), foot path.. Sursass or Schlinig Pass (Remus to Mals) foot path .

Foscagno Pass (Bormio to Trepalle), bridle path .

Alpisella Pass (Livigno to Fraele), bridle path.. Scarl Pass (Scarl to Santa Maria Munster), carriage road. Dossradond Pass (Santa Maria Munster to Fraele), bridle path.. .

Passo Dheira (Livigno to Trepalle) bridle path. .

Ofen Pass (Zernez to Mals), carriage road. Fraele Pass (Bormio to the Ofen road), partly bridle path Scale di Fraele (Bormio to Fraele), bridle path. .

Maloja Pass (St Moritz to Chiavenna), carriage road .

12,087 II,805 11,572 10,840 10,227 10,171 9,912 9,$13 9,767 9,351 9,026 9,000 8,832 8,389 8,242 7,976 7,723 7,645 7,638 7,599 7,592 7,540 7,517 7,497 7,386 7,349 7,248 7,071 6,398 6,372 5,935 II. Albula Range (from the Splugen Pass to the Fluela Pass, north and west of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine).

Peaks of the Albula Range. 11,228 Pizzo Stella. 10,375 11,132 Fluela Schwarzhorn 10,335 11,109 Pizzo della Duana 10,279 '1,106 Pizzo Gallegione 10,201 11,093 Gletscherhorn 10,191 10 ,959 Cima di Lago 10,112 10,785 Hoch Ducan io,060 10,739 Piz Grisch.. 10,000 10,689 Averser Weissberg. 9,987 10,667 Surettahorn.. � 9,971 10,584 Arosa Rothhorn 9,794 10,502 Piz Curver.. 9,761 10,430 Pizzo Lunghino 9,121 10,378 Statzerhorn.. 8,450 Chief Passes of the Albula Range. Fuorcla Calderas (Molins to Bevers), snow.. 10,270 Fuorcla d'Eschia (Madulein to Bergun), snow. 9,869 Passo della Duana (Avers Valley to the Val Bregaglia), snow 9,187 Sertig Pass (Davos to Scanfs), foot path. 9,062 Forcella di Prassignola (Avers Valley to Soglio), old paved cattle path. .. .. ... 8,924 Tinzenthor (Bergun to Savognino), foot path. 8,918 Forcella di Lago or Madris Pass (Avers Valley to Chia venna), foot path. 8,793 Forcellina (Avers Valley to the Septimer Pass), foot path. 8,770 Ducan Pass (Davos to Bergun), foot path. .. 8,763 Passo di Lei (Avers Valley to Chiavenna), foot path.. 8,724 Forcella di Lunghino (Maloja to the Septimer Pass), foot path 8,645 Scaletta Pass (Davos to Scanfs), bridle path.. 8,593 Suvretta Pass (St Moritz to Bevers), bridle path... 8,590 Fuorcla d'Alp Fontauna (Bergun to Scanfs), foot path.. 8,580 Stallerberg (Avers Valley to Bivio-Stalla), foot path.. 8,478 Grialetsch Pass (Davos to Sus), foot path.. .. 8,353 Fluela Pass (Davos to Sus), carriage road.. .. 7,838 Strela Pass (Davos to Langwies), bridle path. 7,799 Albula Pass (Bergun to Ponte), carriage road over, rail 7,595 7,582 7,504 Passo di Madesimo or d'Emet (Avers Valley to Madesimo), foot path. .. ... 7,481 12. Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges (from the Fluela Pass to the Reschen Scheideck and the Arlberg Pass).

Chief Peaks of the Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges. 10,145 10,132 10,079 10,037 10,010 9,968 9,899 9,784 9,7481 9,640 9,554 9, 9,449482 9,285 9,282 9,252 8,678 8,445 8,419 Chief Passes of the Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges. J amjoch (Guarda to Galtiir), snow .. 10,112 Fuorcla del Confin (Silvretta Pass to the Vermunt Glacier), snow. .. ... 10,033 Buinlacke (Guarda to Patenen), snow. 10,020 Silvretta Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow. .. 9,886 Zahnliicke (Jam Glen to the Fimber Glen), snow. 9,712 Verstanklathor (Klosters to Lavin), snow. 9,682 Fuorcla d'Urezzas (Ardez to Galtiir), snow.. 9,564 Fuorcla Tasna (Ardez to Ischgl), snow. 9,374 Fuorcla Maisas (Remus to the Samnaun Glen), snow 9,357 Vermunt or Fermunt Pass (Guarda to Patenen), snow � 9,193 Futschol Pass (Ardez to Galtiir), foot path. .. 9,098 Fuorcla Zadrell or Vernela Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow. 9,033 Cuolm d'Alp bella or Vignitz Pass (Samnaun Glen to Kappl), foot path. .. 8,852 Schafbiicheljoch (Mathon to St Anton), foot path.. 8,685 Fimber Pass (Remus to Ischgl), bridle path. .. 8,570 Scheien Pass (Klosters to the See Glen), foot path 8,557 Vereina Pass or Pass da Val Torta (Klosters to Lavin), foot path.. 8,540 Chief Piz Kesch. Piz dellas Calderas .

Piz Platta .

Piz Julier .

Piz d'Err. .

Piz d'Aela. Cima da Flex Piz Uertsch.. Piz Forbisch. Piz Ot. .

Gross Piz Vadret. Piz Timun or Emet .

Tinzenhorn .

Piz Michel .

way tunnel beneath Septimer Pass (Bivio-Stalla to Casaccia), bridle path.. J ulier Pass (Thusis to Silvaplana), carriage road Zebles Pass (Ischgl to the Samnaun Glen), bridle path .

Garnerajoch (Klosters to Gaschurn), foot path .

Fless Pass (Klosters to Sus), foot path .

St Antonien or Gargellenjoch (St Antonien to St Gallenkirch), foot path .

Drusenthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path .

Verrajochl (Ltinersee to the Schweizerthor), foot path. Ofen Pass (Schweizerthor to Schruns), foot path Cavelljoch (Bludenz and the Liinersee to Seewis), foot path Gruben Pass (St Antonien to Schruns), foot path. Schlappinerjoch (Klosters to St Gallenkirch), bridle path .

Schweizerthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path. .

Bielerh8he (Patenen to Galtiir), bridle path .

Zeinisjoch (Patenen to Galtiir), bridle path. Arlberg Pass (Landeck to Bludenz), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath. .

III. Eastern Alps 13. The Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg (north of the Arlberg Pass, Innsbruck, the Pinzgau, and the Enns valley).

Chief Peaks of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg. Parseierspitze. 9,968 Dachstein.. 9,830 Zugspitze.. � 9,738 Hochkonig.. 9,639 Valluga. ... 9,223 Rockspitze. .. 9,059 E. Hohe Griesspitze. 9,052 Stanskogel. ... 9,052 Birkkarspitze (Karwendel) 9,042 Chief Passes of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg. Gentschel Pass (Oberstdorf to Schrocken), bridle path .

Schrofen Pass (Oberstdorf to Warth), foot path .

Gerlos Pass (Zell to Mittersill), bridle path .

Pass Thurn (Kitzbahel to Mittersill), carriage road. .

Fern Pass (Reutte to Nassereit), carriage road. Scharnitz or Seefeld Pass (Partenkirchen to Zirl), carriage road � � Hirschbiihel Pass (Berchtesgaden to Saalfelden), carriage road. Hochfilzen Pass (Saalfelden to Kitzbahel), railway over. Pyhrn Pass (Linz to Liezen), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath 3,100 Wagreinstattel (Radstadt to St Johann in Pongau), carriage road 2,743 14. Central Tirol Alps (from the Brenner Pass to the Radstalter Tauern Pass, north of the Drave Valley and south of the Pinzgau and the Enns Valley). This division takes in the Zillerthal and Tauern Ranges.

Chief Peaks of the Central Tirol Alps. Ruthnerhorn (Rieser ferner). .. Hochalmspitze.. Reichenspitze (Z). Gross Rotherknopf (Schober) .

Gross Morchner (Z). Hochnarr (Goldberg) Ankogel. .. Hochschober .

. 11,096 Kitzsteinhorn .

. 11,090 Sonnblick. Schwarzenstein (Z).. 11,057 Zsigmondyspitze Gross Geiger. ... 11,041 Reckner (Tuxergebirge) Chief Passes of the Central Tirol Alps. Mitterbachjoch (Breitlahner to Taufers), snow (Z) Trippachsattel (Floiten Valley to Taufers), snow (Z). .

Riffelthor (Kaprun to Heiligenblut), snow .

Bockkarscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow .

Sonnblickscharte (Rauris to Heiligenblut), snow. Alpeinerscharte (Breitlahner to St Jodok am Brenner), foot path (Z) .

Vorder Umbalthorl (Pragraten to Kasern), snow .

Ober Sulzbachthorl (Pragraten to Wald), snow .

Keilbachjoch (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z) .

Unter Sulzbachthorl (Wald to Gschloss), snow .

Schwarzkopfscharte (Bramberg to Gschloss), snow.. Pragraterthorl (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen),foot path Glodisthorl (Lienz to Kals), snow Antholzerscharte (Rein Valley to the Antholz Valley), snow (Z) Krimmlerthorl "(Krimml Glen to the Obersulzbach Glen) snow .

Goldzechscharte (Heiligenblut to Rauris), snow .

KalserthOrl (Kals to Lienz), snow. .

[Peaks And Passes Ober Tramerscharte (Rauris to Dollach), snow 9193 Kleine Elendscharte (Gastein to Gmtind), snow Kleine Zirknitzscharte (Dollach to Fragant or Rauris), snow 88,,987 921 Dossener or Mallnitzerscharte (Mallnitz to Gmtind), snow 8, � ,783 Grosse Elendscharte (Mallnitz to the Upper Malta Glen), snow Unter Pfandlscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow 8,744 Heiliggeistjochl (Mayrhofen to Kasern), foot path (Z) 88,721770 Bergerthorl (Kals to Heiligenblut), foot path.. 8,695 Kaprunerthorl (upper Kaprun Glen to the upper Stubach Glen), snow. � 8,645 Krimmler Tauern (Krimml to Kasern), foot path 8,642 Virgner or Defereggerthorl (Defereggen Glen to Virgen and Pragraten), foot path 8,586 Backlenke or Trojerjoch (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen), foot path 8,573 Hochthor or Heiligenbluter Tauern (Heiligenblut to Rauris), foot path 8,442 Horndljochl (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z) 8,383 Velber Tauern (Windisch Matrei to Mittersill), bridle path. 8,334 Kaiser Tauern (Kals to Uttendorf), foot path 8,242 Hohe or Korn Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle path over, railway tunnel beneath 8,081 Niedere or Mallnitzer Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle path 7,920 Fuscherthorl (Ferleiten to the Seidlwinkel Glen), foot path 7,891 Lappacherjoch (Lappach to the Ahrn Valley), foot path (Z). 7,763 Tuxerjoch or Schmirnjoch (Mayrhofen to St Jodok am Brenner), foot path (Z). 7,697 Klammljoch (Taufers to the Defereggen Valley), bridle path 7,517 Arlscharte (St Johann in Pongau to GmUnd), foot path 7,386 Pfitscherjoch (Mayrhofen to Sterzing), foot path (Z). 7,376 Kals Matreierthorl (Kals to Windisch Matrei), bridle path 7,238 Die Stanz (Gastein to Rauris), foot path. 6,900 Stallersattel (Defereggen Glen to the Antholz Glen), bridle path (R) .

Radstadter Tauern (Radstadrto Mautendorf), carriage road 5,702 15. Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges (from the Reschen Scheideck and the Stelvio to the Brenner Pass, south of the Inn Valley, and north of the Tonale Pass).

Chief Peaks of the Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges. Chief Passes of the Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges. Hochjoch (Sulden to the Zebru Glen), snow. 11,602 Vioz Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow. 10,949 Sonklarscharte (Solden to Sterzing), snow. 10,916 Konigsjoch (Sulden to Santa Caterina), snow.. 10,811 Cevedale Pass (Santa Caterina to the Martell Glen), snow 10,732 Gepatschjoch (Vent to the Kauns Valley), snow. Io,640 Ramoljoch (Vent to Gurgl), snow � 1'0.479 Langtaufererjoch (Vent to the Reschen Scheideck Pass), snow. 10,391 Bildstockljoch (Solden to Ranalt), snow.. 10,296 Gurgler Eisjoch (Gurgl to the Pfossen Glen), snow.. 10,292 Eissee Pass (Sulden to the Martell Glen), snow. 10,279 Langthalerjoch (Gurgl to Pfelders), snow. 10,033 Passo del Zebru (Santa Caterina to the Zebru Glen), snow. 9,925 Sa.11entjoch (Martell Glen to Rabbi), snow. 9,913 Niederjoch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow -9, 8 99 Sforzellina Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow .

Pitzthalerjochl (Mittelberg to Solden), snow .

Eisjochl am Bild (Pfelders to the Pfossen Glen), snow .

Venter Hochjoch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow.. Tabarettascharte (Sulden to Trafoi), foot path Stelvio Pass (Trafoi to Bormio), carriage road 9,055 Gavia Pass (Santa Caterina to Ponte di Legno), foot path 8,651 Timmeljoch orTimblerjoch (Solden to the Passeierthal and Meran), bridle path. .. 8,232 Jaufen Pass (Sterzing to Meran), bridle path. 6,870 Reschen Scheideck Pass (Landeck to Meran), carriage road 4,902 Brenner Pass (Innsbruck to Verona), railway over. 4,495 16. Lombard Alps (from the Lake of Como to the Adige Valley, south of the Valtellina and the Aprica and Tonale Passes. This Ortler Konigsspitze.. Monte Cevedale. Wildspitze (Oetzthal) Weisskugel. Monte Zebru.. Palon della Mare Punta San Matteo Thurwieserspitze Hintere Schwarze Similaun Pizzo Tresero .

Gross Ramolkogel Vertainspitze.. Hochvernagtspitze Zuckerhiitl (Stubai) .

Schalfkogel.. .

Schrankogel. .

Hochwildspitze. .

Sonklarspitze. .

Tuckettspitze. .

Wilder Freiger.. Veneziaspitze Tschengelser Hochwand Monte Confinale .

Glockthurm. .

Fernerkogel.. .

Monte Sobretta .

Habicht. � Pflerscher Tribulaun .

12,802 12,655 12,382 12,382 12,291 12,254 12,156 12,113 11,946 11,920 11,821 11,818 I 1,651 I 1,618 11,585 11,520 11,516 11,483 I 1,418 11,405 11,346 11,241 11,103 11,083 11,057 II,011 10,827 10,814 10,758 10,178 Watzmann. ... 8,901 Rothewandspitze. 8,878 Gross Krottenkopf (Allgau)8, 71 8 Selbhorn.. 8,711 Hohes Licht. .. 8,701 Madelegabel.. .. 8,681 Hochvogel. ... 8,511 Elmauer Haltsspitze (Kaiser gebirge). ... 7,691 6,480 5,538 4,876 4,183 4,026 3,874 3,858 3,173 10,270 10,020 10,010 9,994 9,774 9,712 9,607 9,600 9,410 9,400 9,351 9,338 9,292 9,252 9,233 9,220 9,197 8,350 8,153 8,045 7,792 7,710 7,648 7,523 7,343 7,333 7,218 7,057 6,631 6,076 5,912 Gross Glockner.. 12,461 Gross Venediger. .. 12,008 Gross Wiesbachhorn. 11,713 Hochfeiler (Zillerthal). 11,559 Dreiherrenspitze.. 11,500 Mosele (Z).. 11,438 Olperer (Z). 11,418 Johannisberg. .. 11,375 Hochgall (Rieserferner). 11,287 Thurnerkamp (Z). 11,228 Gross Loffler (Z). .

Fusstein (Z) .

11,024. I 1,008 � 10,844 10,814 � 10,785 � 10,689 � 10,673 � 10,663 10,512 � 10,196 10,122 9,485 6,742 9,859 9,826 9,541 9,465 9,459 division includes the Adamello, Presanella, Brenta and Bergamasque ranges.

Chief Peaks of the Lombard Alps. Chief Passes of the Lombard Alps. Passo di Lares (Lares Glacier to the Lobbia Glacier), snow. Passo di Cercen (Val di Genova to Fucine), snow. Passo della Lobbia Alta (Lobbia Glacier to the Mandron Glacier), snow.. Passo di Presena (Val di Genova to the Tonale Pass), snow. Pisgana Pass (Val di Genova to Ponte di Legno), snow. Bocca di Tuckett (Campiglio to Molveno), snow Passo di Val Morta or del Diavolo (Val Seriana to Sondrio), foot path. Bocca di Brenta (Pinzolo or Campiglio to Molveno), snow.

Passo del Groste (Campiglio to Cles), foot path. .

Passo di Venina (Val Brembana to Sondrio), foot path .

Passo del Salto (Val Seriana to Sondrio), foot path.. Passo del Venerocolo (Val di Scalve to the Aprica road), bridle path .

Passo della Forcellina or di Campo (Cedegolo to the Val di Fumo), foot path. Passo di Dordona (Val Brembana to Sondrio), foot path. Passo di San Marco (Bergamo to Morbegno), bridle path. Croce Domini Pass (Breno to Bagolino in Val Caffaro), bridle path .

Tonale Pass (Trent to Edolo), carriage road Passo di Zovetto (Val di Scalve to Edolo), bridle path Colle Maniva (Val Trompia to Bagolino), bridle path Campo or Ginevrie Pass (Dimaro by Campiglio to Pinzolo), carriage road. .

Gampenjoch (Cles to Meran), foot path. .. Mendel Pass (Botzen to Cles), railway on the E. slope Passo di Castione or Presolana Pass (Clusone to the Val di Scalve), carriage road.. � .

Aprica Pass (Edolo to Tirano), carriage road. 17. The Dolomites of South Tirol (from the Brenner Pass Monte Croce Pass, and south of the Pusterthal).

Chief Peaks of the Dolomites of South Tirol. Chief Passes of the Dolomites of South Tirol. Passo d'Ombretta (Campitello to Caprile), foot path. 8,983 Langkofeljoch (Groden Valley to Campitello), foot path. 8,803 Tschagerjoch (Karersee to the Vajolet Glen), foot path. 8,675 Grasleiten Pass (Vajolet Glen to the Grasleiten Glen), foot path 8,521 Passo di Pravitale (Rosetta Plateau to the Pravitale Glen), foot path. .. ... 8,465 Passo delle Comelle (same to Cencenighe), foot path � 8,462 Passo della Rosetta (San Martino di Castrozza to the great limestone Rosetta Plateau), foot path.. 8,442 Vajolet Pass (Tiers to the Vajolet Glen), foot path.. 8,363 Passo di Canali (Primiero to Agordo), foot path.. 8,193 Tiersalpljochl (Campitello to Tiers), foot path. 8,055 Passo di Ball (San Martino di Castrozza to the Pravitale Glen), foot path. ... 8,038 Forcella di Giralba (Sexten to Auronzo), foot path. 7,992 Col dei Bos (Falzarego Glen to the Travernanzes Glen), foot path 7,579 Forcella Grande (San Vito to Auronzo), foot path 7,422 Pordoi Pass (Caprile to Campitello), carriage road 7,382 Sellajoch (Groden Glen to Campitello), bridle path 7,277 Tre Sassi Pass (Cortina to St Cassian), foot path 7,215 Mahlknechtjoch (Upper Duron Glen to the Seiser Alp), foot path. 7,113 Grodenerjoch (Groden Glen to Colfuschg), bridle path. 7,011 Falzarego Pass (Caprile to Cortina), small carriage read. 6,946 Fedaja Pass (Campitello to Caprile), bridle path. 6,713 Passo di Valles (Paneveggio to Cencenighe), foot path 6,667 Rolle Pass (Predazzo to San Martino di Castrozza and Primiero), carriage road. .. 6,509 Forcella Forada (Caprile to San Vito), bridle path. 6,480 Passo di San Pellegrino (Mona to Cencenighe), small carriage road. 6,267 Forcella d'Alleghe (Alleghe to the Zoldo Glen), foot path. Tre Croci Pass (Cortina to Auronzo), carriage road Karersee or Caressa Pass (Welschenofen to Vigo di Fassa), carriage road.. 5,715 Monte Croce Pass (Innichen and Sexten to the Piave Valley and Belluno), carriage road Ampezzo Pass (Toblach to Cortina and Belluno), carriage road Cereda Pass (Primiero to Agordo), bridle path 4,501 Toblach Pass (Bruneck to Lienz), railway over. 3,967 18. South-Eastern Alps (east of the Monte Croce Pass). This division includes three small groups, the Julie, Carnic and Karawankas Alps-each peak and pass being distinguished by one of the initial letters " J," " C " or " K." Chief Peaks of the South-Eastern Alps. Terglou or Triglav (J). 9,400 Monte Cridola (C) Monte Coglians (C).. 9,128 Grintovc (K) .

Kellerwand (C).. 9,105 Prestrelenik (J). Jof del Montasio (J).. 9,039 Monte Cavallo (C) Cima dei Preti (C). 8,868 Krn (J). .

Monte Paralba (C). 8,829 Stou (K) .

Manhart (J). ... 8,786 Dobratsch (C) .

Jalouc (J). 8,711 Velka Kappa (K) Monte Canin (J).. 8,471 Chief Passes of the South-Eastern Alps. Oefnerjoch (Forno Avoltri to St Lorenzen in the Gail Valley) foot path (C) .

Wolayer Pass (same to Mauthen), foot path (C). .

Loibl Pass (Klagenfurt to Laibach), carriage road (K) .

Plocken Pass (Tolmezzo to Mauthen), bridle path (C). Predil Pass (Villach by Tarvis and Flitsch to Gorz), carriage road (J) 3,813 Birnbaumerwald (Laibach to Gorz), carriage road (J). 2,897 Saifnitz or Pontebba Pass (Villach by Tarvis and Pontebba to Udine), railway. 2,615 7. Political History and Modern State of the Inhabitants of the Alps.-We know practically nothing of the early dwellers in the Alps, save from the scanty accounts preserved to us by Roman and Greek historians and geographers. A few details have come down to us of the conquest of many of the Alpine tribes by Augustus, though not much more than their names. The successive emigrations and occupation of the Alpine region by divers Teutonic tribes from the 5th to the 6th centuries are, too, known to us only in outline, while to them, as to the Frankish kings and emperors, the Alps offered a route from one place to another rather than a permanent residence. It is not till the final break up of the Carolingian empire in the 10th and II th centuries that it becomes possible to trace out the local history of different parts of the Alps.

In the case of the Western Alps (minus the bit from the chain of Mont Blanc to the Simplon, which followed the fortunes of the Valais), a prolonged struggle for the Alpine region took place between the feudal lords of Savoy, the Dauphine and Provence. In 1349 the Dauphine fell to France, while in 1388 the county of Nice passed from Provence to the house of Savoy, which too held Piedmont as well as other lands on the Italian side of the Alps. The struggle henceforth was limited to France and the house of Savoy, but little by little France succeeded in pushing 10,483 9,984 9,961 9,879 9,626 8,714 8,534 8,376 8,006 7,983 7,937 7,595 7,507 6,824 6,513 6,217 6,181 5,968 5,476 5,407 5,051 4,462 4,219 3,875 to the 5,971 5,932 5,374 5,066 8,468 8,429 8,202 7,386 7,369 7,346 7,110 5,059 7,550 6,506 4,495 4,462 back the house of Savoy across the Alps, thus forcing it to become a purely Italian power. One turning-point in the rivalry was the treaty of Utrecht (1713), by which France gave up to Savoy the districts (all forming part of the Dauphine, and lying on the Italian slope of the Alps) of Exilles, Bardonneche, Oulx, Fenestrelles, and Chateau Dauphin, while Savoy handed over to France the valley of Barcelonnette, situated on the western slope of the Alps and forming part of the county of Nice. The final act in the long-continued struggle took place in 1860, when France obtained by cession the rest of the county of Nice and also Savoy, thus remaining sole mistress on the western slope of the Alps.

In the Central Alps the chief event, on the northern side of the chain, is the gradual formation from 1291 to 1815 of the Swiss Confederation, at least so far as regards the mountain Cantons, and with especial reference to the independent confederations of the Grisons and the Valais, which only became full members of the Confederation in 1803 and 1815 respectively. The attraction of the south was too strong for both the Forest Cantons and the Grisons, so that both tried to secure, and actually did secure, various bits of the Milanese. The former, in the 15th century, won the Val Leventina (down which the St Gotthard train now thunders) as well as Bellinzona and the Val Blenio (though the Ossola Valley was held for a time only), while the latter added to the Val Bregaglia (which had been given to the bishop of Coire in 960 by the emperor Otto I.) the valleys of Mesocco and of Poschiavo. Further, in 1512, the Swiss Confederation as a whole won the valleys of Locarno with Lugano, which, combined with the 15th century conquests by the Forest Cantons, were formed in 1803 into the new Canton of Ticino or Tessin. On the other hand, the Grisons won in 1512 the Valtellina, with Bormio and Chiavenna, but in 1797 these regions were finally lost to it as well as to the Swiss Confederation, though the Grisons retained the valleys of Mesocco, Bregaglia and Poschiavo, while in 1762 it had bought the upper bit of the valley of Munster that lies on the southern slope of the Alps.

In the Eastern Alps the political history is almost monotonous, for it relates simply to the advance or retreat of the house of Habsburg, which still holds all but the whole of the northern portion (the exception is the small bit in the north-west that belongs to Bavaria) of that region. The Habsburgers, whose original home was in the lower valley of the Aar, where still stand the ruins of their ancestral castle, lost that district to the Swiss in 1415, as they had previously lost various other bits of what is now Switzerland. But they received a rich compensation in the Eastern Alps (not to speak of the imperial crown), for they there gathered in the harvest that numerous minor dynasties had prepared for them, albeit unconsciously. Thus they won the duchy of Austria with Styria in 1282, Carinthia and Carniola in 1335, Tirol in 1363, and the Vorarlberg in bits from 1375 to 1523, not to speak of minor " rectifications " of frontiers on the northern slope of the Alps. But on the other slope their progress was slower, and finally less successful. It is true that they early won Primiero (1373), as well as (1517) the Ampezzo Valley and several towns to the south of Trent. In 1797 they obtained Venetia proper, in 1803 the secularized bishoprics of Trent and Brixen (as well as that of Salzburg, more to the north), besides the Valtellina region, and in 1815 the Bergamasque valleys, while the Milanese had belonged to them since 1535. But, as is well known, in 1859 they lost to the house of Savoy both the Milanese and the Bergamasca, and in 1866 Venetia proper also, so that the Trentino is now their chief possession on the southern slope of the Alps. The gain of the Milanese in 18J9 by the future king of Italy (1861) meant that Italy then won the valley of Livigno (between the Upper Engadine and Bormio), which is the only important bit it holds on the nonItalian slope of the Alps, besides the county of Tenda (obtained in 1575, and not lost in 1860), with the heads of certain glens in the Maritime Alps, reserved in 1860 for reasons connected with hunting. Thus the Alpine states (Italy, Switzerland and Austria), other than France and Bavaria, hold bits of territory on the slope of the Alps where one would not expect to find them. Roughly speaking, in each of these five lands the Alpine population speaks the tongue of the country, though in Italy there are a few French-speaking districts (the Waldensian valleys as well as the Aosta and Oulx valleys) as well as some German-speaking and Ladin-speaking settlements. In Switzerland there are Italian-speaking regions, as well as some spots (in the Grisons) where the old Romance dialect of Romansch or Ladin survives; while in Austria, besides German, Italian and Ladin, we havea Slavonic-speaking population in the South-Eastern Alps. The highest permanently inhabited village in the Alps is Juf, 6998 ft. (Grisons); while in the French Alps, L'Ecot, 6713 ft. (Savoy), and St Veran, 6726 ft. (Dauphine), are rivals; the Italian Alps boast of Trepalle, 6788 ft. (between Livigno and Bormio), and the Tirolese Alps of Ober Gurgl, 6322 ft., and Fend, 6211 ft. (both in the Oetzthal).

8. Exploration of the High Alps. - The higher region of the Alps were long left to the exclusive attention of the men of the adjoining valleys, even when Alpine travellers (as distinguished from Alpine climbers) began to visit these valleys. It is reckoned that about 20 glacier passes were certainly known before 1600, about 25 more before 1700, and yet another score before 1800; but though the attempt of P. A. Arnod (an official of the duchy of Aosta) in 1689 to " re-open " the Col du Geant may be counted as made by a non-native, we do not come upon another case of the kind till the last quarter of the 18th century. Nor did it fare much better with the high peaks, though the two earliest recorded ascents were due to non-natives, that of the Rochemelon in 1358 having been undertaken in fulfilment of a vow, and that of the Mont Aiguille in 1492 by order of Charles VIII. of France, in order to destroy its immense reputation for inaccessibility - in 1555 Conrad Gesner did not climb Pilatus proper, but only the grassy mound of the Gnepfstein, the lowest and the most westerly of the seven summits. The two first men who really systematically explored the regions of ice and snow were H. B. de Saussure (1740-1799), as regards the Pennine Alps, and the Benedictine monk of Disentis, Placidus a Spescha (1752-1833, most of whose ascents were made before 1806), in the valleys at the sources of the Rhine. In the early 19th century the Meyer family of Aarau conquered in person the Jungfrau (1811) and by deputy the Finsteraarhorn (1812), besides opening several glacier passes, their energy being entirely confined to the Bernese Oberland. Their pioneer work was continued in that district, as well as others, by a number of Swiss, pre-eminent among whom were Gottlieb Studer (1804-1890) of Bern, and Edouard Desor (1811-1882) of Neuchatel. The first-known English climber in the Alps was Colonel Mark Beaufoy (1764-1827), who in 1787 made an ascent (the fourth) of Mont Blanc, a mountain to which his fellow-countrymen long exclusively devoted themselves, with a few noteworthy exceptions, such as Principal J. D. Forbes (1809-1868), A. T. Malkin (1803-1888), John Ball (1818-1889), and Sir Alfred Wills (b. 1828). Around Monte Rosa the Vincent family, Josef Zumstein (1783-1861), and Giovanni Gnifetti (1801-1867) did good work during the half century between 1778 and 1842, while in the Eastern Alps the Archduke John (1782-1859), Prince F. J. C. von Schwarzenberg, archbishop of Salzburg (1809-1885), Valentine Stanig (1774-1847), Adolf Schaubach (1800-1850), above all, P. J. Thurwieser (1789-1865), deserve to be recalled as pioneers in the first half of the 19th century. In the early fifties of the 19th century the taste for mountaineering rapidly developed for several very different reasons. A great stimulus was given to it by the foundation of the various Alpine clubs, each of which drew together the climbers who dwelt in the same country. The first was the English Alpine Club (founded in the winter of 1857-1858), followed in 1862 by the Austrian Alpine Club (which in 1873 was fused, under the name of the German and Austrian Alpine Club, with the German Alpine Club, founded in 1869), in 1863 by the Italian and Swiss Alpine Clubs, and in 1874 by the French Alpine Club, not to mention numerous minor societies of more local character. It was by the members of these clubs (and a few others) that the minute exploration (now all but complete) of the High Alps was carried out, while much has been done in the way of building club huts, organizing and training guides, &c., to smooth the way for later corners, who benefit too by the detailed information published in the periodicals (the first dates from 1863 only) issued by these clubs. Limits of space forbid us to trace out in detail the history of the exploration of the High Alps, but the two sub-joined lists give the dates of the conquest of about fifty of the greater peaks (apart from the two climbed in 1358 and in 1492, see above), achieved before and after 1st January 1858. As a proof of the rapidly-growing activity of Englishmen, it may be pointed out that while before 1858 only four summits (the Miterhorn, or central peak of the Wetterh6rner, the highest point of Monte Rosa, Laquinhorn and Pelmo) were first ascended by Englishmen, in the case of the second list only five (Grand Combin,Wildspitze,Marmolata, Langkofel and Meije) were not so conquered (if the present writer, an American, be included among the English pro hac vice). (i) Before 1st January 1858:-Titlis (1744), Ankogel (1762), Mont Velan (1'779), Mont Blanc (1786), Rheinwaldhorn (1789), Gross Glockner (1800), Ortler (1804), Jungfrau (1811), Finsteraarhorn (1812), Zumsteinspitze (1820), Todi (1824), Altels (1834), Piz Linard (1835), Gross Venediger (1841), Signalkuppe (1842), Wetterhorner � (1844-1845), Mont Pelvoux (1848), Diablerets and Piz Bernina (both in 1850), highest point of Monte Rosa (1855), Laquinhorn (1856) and Pelmo (1857).

(2) After 1st January 1858:-Dom (1858), Aletschhorn, Bietschhorn and Grand Conmbin (all in 1859), Grand Paradis and Grande Casse (both in 1860), Weisshorn, Monte Viso, Gross Schreckhorn, Lyskamm and Wildspitze (all in 1861), Dent Blanche, Monte della Disgrazia and Taschhorn (all in 1862), Marmolata, Presanella, Pointe des Ecrins and Zinal Rothhorn (all in 1864), Matterhorn, Ober Gabelhorn, Aiguille Verte and Piz Roseg (all in 1865), Langkofel (1869), Cimon della Pala (1870), Rosengarten (1872), Meije (1877), Aiguille du Dru (1878), Punta dell' Argentera (1879), Aiguille des Charmoz (1880), Aiguille de Grepon (1881) and Aiguille du Geant (1882).

9. General List Of Books And Maps.-(I) Books.-For a longer list than we can give see John Ball's Hints and Notes for Travellers in the Alps (new ed., 1899) and also A. Waber's Landesand Reisebeschreibungen der Schweiz (1899, supplement in 1907). In general see J. Ball's The Alpine Guide (3 vols., new ed. of vol. i., 1898; last ed. of vol. ii., 1876, and of vol. iii., 1879); H. A. Berlepsch, Die Alpen in Naturand Lebensbildern (last ed., 1885, Eng. trans., 1861); T. G. Bonney, The Alpine Regions of Switzerland and the Neighbouring Countries (1868); A. Civiale, Les Alpes au point de vue de la geographie physique (1882); Sir Martin Conway, The Alps (1904); W. A. B. Coolidge, Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide-Books (1889) and The Alps (1908); R. von Lendenfeld, Aus den Alpen (2 vols., 1896); C. Lentheric, L'Homme devant les Alpes (1896); F. Umlauft, Die Alpen (1887, Eng. trans., 1889). On some special subjects see W. A. Baillie-Grohmann, Sport in the Alps (1896); A. Mosso, Fisiologia dell' Uomo suite Alpi (1897, English trans., 1898); N. Zuntz and others, Hohenklima and Bergwanderungen in ihrer Wirkungen auf den Menschen (1906); G. Berndt, Der Fiihn (1896, the south wind, so important in mountain districts); and the article on Glacier.

As to Alpine legends, consult Maria Savi-Lopez, Leggende delle Alpi (1889); M. Tscheinen, Walliser-Sagen (1872); Th. Vernaleken, Alpensagen (1858); and I. V. Zingerle, Sagen aus Tirol (1859); and as to Alpine poetry-J. Adam, Der Natursinn in der deutschen Dichtung (1906); E. A. Baker and F. E. Ross, The Voice of the Mountains (1905, an anthology in verse and prose); A. von Haller, Die Alpen (1732, best ed., 1882, illustrated ed., 1902); and H. E. Jenny, Die Alpendichtung in der deutschen Schweiz (1905).

As to Alpine dialects, consult J. Alton, Die ladinischen Idiome in Ladinien, Groden, Fassa, Buchenstein, Ampezzo (1879); J. A. Chabrand and A. de Rochas d'Aiglun, Patois des Alpes cottiennes (1877); Z. and E. Pallioppi, Dizionari dels Idioms Romauntschs d'Engiadina ota e basses, &c. (1895); A. Socin, Schriftsprache and Dialekte im Deutschen (1888); F. J. Stalder, Die Landessprachen der Schweiz (1819), and J. Zimmerli, Die deutsch franzosische Sprachgrenze in der Schweiz (3 vols., 1891-1899); besides the great Swiss Dialect Dictionary (Schweiz. Idiotikon) in course of publication since 1881.

As to the history of the Alps, the following works touch on various aspects of the subject :-G. Allais, Le Alpi Occidentali nell' Antichita (1891); W. Brockedon, Illustrations of the Passes of the Alps (2 vols., 1828-1829); J. Grand-Carteret, La Montagne a travers les ages (2 vols., 1902-1904); G. Oberziner, Le Guerre di Augusto contro i populi alpini (1900); E. Oehlmann, Die Alpenpasse im Mittelalter (1878-1879); R. Reinhard, Passe and Strassen in den Schweizer Alpen (1903); and L. Vaccarone, Le Vie delle Alpi Occidentali negli antichi tempi (1884); while W. A. B. Coolidge's Josias Simler et les origines de l'alpinisme jusqu'en 1600 (1904) summarises our knowledge of the Alps up to 1600.

Among works of a more or less descriptive nature (based on actual travels), the following list includes all the standard works dated before 1855 :-Le Alpi the cingono l'Italia (1845); J. G. Altmann, Versuch einer hist. u. phys. Beschreibung der helvetischen Eisbergen (1751); A. C. Bordier, Voyage pittoresque aux glacieres de Savoye (1773); P. J. de Bourcet, Memoires militaires sur les frontieres de la France, du Piemont, et de la Savoie (1801); M. T. Bourrit, Description des glacieres, glaciers, et amas de glace du duche de Savoye (1773, Eng. trans., 1775), Description des Alpes Pennines et rhetiennes (2 vols., 1781, 3rd vol., 1785), and Description des cols ou passages des Alpes (2 vols., 1803); W. Brockedon, Journals of Excursions in the Alps (1833); U. Campell, Raetiae alpestris topographica descriptio (finished in 1572, but publ. only in 1884, with a supplement in 1900); J. A. Deluc and P. G. Dentan, Relation de differents voyages dans les Alpes du Faucigny (1776); E. Desor, Excursions et sejours dans les glaciers (2 series, 1844-1845); C. M. Engelhardt, Naturschilderungen aus den hochsten Schweizer-Alpen (1840), and Das Monte-Rosa and Matterhorn-Gebirg (1852); J. D. Forbes, Travels through the Alps of Savoy (1843, new ed., 1900); Sir John Forbes, A Physician's Holiday (1849); J. Frobel, Reise in die weniger bekannten Thaler auf der Nordseite der penninischen Alpen (1840); G. Gnifetti, Nozioni topografiche del Monte Rosa ed ascensioni su esso (1845, 2nd ed., 1858); G. S. Gruner, Die Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes (3 vols., 1760); J. Hegetschweiler, Reisen in den Gebirgsstock zwischen Glarus and Graubunden, 1819-1822 (1825); G. Hoffmann, Wanderungen in der Gletscherwelt (1843); F. J. Hugi, Naturhistorische Alpenreise (1830); C. J. Latrobe, The Alpenstock (1829) and The Pedestrian (1832); J. R. and H. Meyer, Reise auf den Jungfrau-Gletscher and Ersteigung seines Gipfels (181 I); De Montannel, La Topographie militaire de la frontiere des Alpes (written in 1777, but publ. in 1875 only); Operations geodesiques et astronomiques pour la mesure d'un arc du parallele moyen (2 vols., 1825-1827); H. R. Rebmann, Ein poetisch Gastmal and Gesprach zweyer Bergen, nemlich des Niesens and Stockhorns (1606); C. Rohrdorf, Reise fiber die Grindelwald-Viescher-Gletscher and Ersteigung des Gletschers des Jungfrau-Berges (1828); H. B. de Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes (4 vols., 1779-1796); A. Schaubach, Deutsche Alpen (4 vols., 1845-1847); J. J. Scheuchzer, Helvetiae Stoicheiographia, Orographia, et Oreographia (1716), and Itinera per Helvetiae alpinas regiones facta annis 1702-1711 (4 vols., 1723); J. Simler, Vallesiae Descriptio et de Alpibus Commentarius (1574, new ed. in 1904, see Coolidge above); Albert Smith, The Story of Mont Blanc (1853); G. Studer, Topographische Mitteilungen aus dem Alpengebirge (1843); R. TOpffer, Voyages en zigzag (2 series, 1844 and 1853); Aegid. Tschudi, De prised ac vera alpind Rhaetid (1538, also in German, same date); and L. von Welden, Der Monte Rosa (1824). As to works published after 1855 we can only give a short, though carefully selected, list. C. Aeby and others, Das Hochgebirge von Grindelwald (1865); W. A. Baillie-Grohmann, Tyrol and the Tyrolese (1876), and Gaddings with a Primitive People (2 vols., 1878); H. von Barth, Aus den nordlichen Kalkalpen (1874); L. Barth and L. Pfaundler, Die Stubaiergebirgsgruppe (1865); F. Browne, Off the Mill (1895); Mrs H. W. Cole, A Lady's Tour round Monte Rosa (1859) � E. T. Coleman, Scenes from the Snow Fields (1859); Sir Martin Conway, The Alps from End to End (1895); A. Daudet, Tartarin sur les Alpes (1885, Eng. trans., same date); C. T. Dent, Above the Snow Line (1885); Miss A. B. Edwards, Untrodden Peaks and Unfrequented Valleys (1873, Dolomites); Max FOrderreuther, Die Allgauer Alpen (1906); D. W. Freshficld, Across Country from Thonon to Trent (1865), and Italian Alps (1875) � Mrs Henry Freshfield, Alpine Byways (1861), and A Summer Tour in the Grisons (1862); H. B. George, The Oberland and its Glaciers (1866); J. Gilbert and G. C. Churchill, The Dolomite Mountains (1864); A. G. Girdlestone, The High Alps without Guides (1870); P. Grohmann, Wanderungen in den Dolomiten (1877); P. Gassfeldt, In den Hochalpen (1886), and Der Montblanc (1894); T. W. Hinchliff, Summer Months among the Alps (1857); C. Hudson and E. S. Kennedy, IVhere there's a Will there's a Way (1856); E. Javelle, Souvenirs d'un Alpiniste (1886, Eng. trans., 1899); S. W. King, The Italian Valleys of the Pennine Alps (1858); Le Valli di Lanzo (publ. by the Italian Alpine Club in 1899); A. Lorria and E. A. Martel, Le Massif de la Bernina (1894); J. Michelet, La Montagne (1868, Eng. trans., 1872); A. W. Moore, The Alps in 1864 (1867, publ. ed., 1902); A. F. Mummery, My Climbs in the Alps (1895); Norman-Neruda, The Climbs of (1899) Peaks, Passes and Glaciers (3 vols., 1859-1862); L. Purtscheller, Uber Fels and Firn (1901); E. Rambert, Ascensions et fldneries (2 vols., 1888); G. Rey, Il Monte Cervino (1904); John Ruskin, vol. iv. (On Mountain Beauty) of Modern Painters (1856); A. von Ruthner, Aus den Tauern (1864) and Aus Tirol (1869); V. Sella and D. Vallino, Monte Rosa e Gressoney (1890); F. Simony, Das Dachsteingebiet (1889-1896); L. Sinigaglia, Climbing Reminiscences of the Dolomites (1896); K. von Sonklar, Die Oetzthaler Gebirgsgruppe (1860), and Die Gebirgsgruppe der Hohen-Tauern (1866); Sir L. Stephen, The Playground of Europe (1871); B. Studer, Geschichte der physischen Geographie der Schweiz bis 1815 (1863); G. Studer and others, Bergand Gletscherfahrten (2 series, 1859 and 1863); G. Theobald, Naturbilder aus den rheitischen Alpen (1860), and Das Biindner Oberland (1861); F. F. Tuckett, Hochalpenstudien (2 vols., 1873-1874); Miss L. Tuckett, How we Spent the Summer (1864), Pictures in Tyrol (1867), and Zigzagging amongst Dolomites (1871); J. Tyndall, The Glaciers of the Alps (1860), Mountaineering in 1861 (1862), and Hours of Exercise in the Alps (1871); J. J. Weilenmann, Aus der Firnenwelt (3 vols., 1872-1877); E. Whymper, Scrambles amongst the Alps (1871); Sir A. Wills, Wanderings among the High Alps (1856), and The " Eagle's Nest" in the Valley of Sixt (1860); G. Yeld, Scrambles in the Eastern Graians (1900); H. Zschokke, Reise auf die Eisgebirge des Kantons Bern and Ersteigung ihrer hochsten Gipfel im Sommer von 1812 (1813); E. Zsigmondy, Im Hochgebirge (1889); M. Zurbriggen, From the Alps to the Andes (1899).

Many useful practical hints as to climbing are to be found in C. T. Dent and others, Mountaineering (1892, 3rd ed., 1900, " Badminton Library "); the Manuel d'Alpinisme (1904, publ. by the French Alpine Club); J. Meurer, Handbuch der alpinen Sport (1882), Katechismus fur Bergsteiger (1892), and Der Bergsteiger im Hochgebirge (1893); and C. Wilson, Mountaineering (1893, " All England " series). As regards the dangers of Alpine climbing consult C. Fiorio and C. Ratti, 1 Pericoli dell' Alpinismo (1889), and E. Zsigmondy, Die Gefahren der Alpen (1885, Fr. trans., 1889). There are also special guide-books for the use of climbers in the Alps - the " Climbers' Guides " series, edited by Sir Martin Conway and W. A. B. Coolidge (io vols., 1890-1904); W. A. B. Coolidge, H. Duhamel and F. Perrin, Guide du Haut Dauphine (1887, with supplement in 1890, Eng. trans., 1892 and 1905); L. Purtscheller and H. Hess, Der Hochtourist in den Ostalpen (2 vols., 18 94, 3 vols., 3rd ed., 1903); the 3 vols. publ. (1902-1905) by the Swiss Alpine Club under the name of Clubfiihrer to the Alps of Glarus and Uri, and V. Wolf von Glanvell, Dolomitenfiihrer (1898).

As regards the early history of Alpine exploration consult W. A. B. Coolidge, Josias Simler et les origines de l'alpinisme jusqu'en 1600 (1904), and F. Gribble, The Early Mountaineers (1899). For the later period see, besides the more general works of travel mentioned above, the publications (that date from 1863) of the various Alpine Clubs - the Alpine Journal (English A. C.), the Annuaire, Bulletin, La Montagne, and Revue alpine (French A. C.), the Jahrbuch, Mitteilungen, Verhandlungen, and Zeitschrift (German and Austrian A. C.), the Alpinista, Bollettino, and Rivista Mensile (Italian A. C.), and the Alpina, Echo des Alpes, Jahrbuch, Schweizer Alpen-Zeitung (Swiss A. C.), besides those of the smaller societies, such as the Osterreichische Alpen-Zeitung (Austrian A. C.), the Annuaire (Societe des Touristes du Dauphine), and the Annuario (Societa degli Alpinisti Tridentini). Summaries of the Alpine history of the three great divisions of the Alps are given in (W. Alps) L. Vaccarone, Statistica delle Prime Ascensioni nelle Alpi Occidentali (3rd. ed., 1890 - this work omits the Dauphine Alps, as to which see the 1887 work or its Eng. version , 1905, mentioned above); (Central and Swiss Alps) G. Studer, Ober Eis and Schnee (2nd ed. 3 vols., 1896-1899); and (E. Alps) G. Groger and J. Rabl, Die Entwickelung der Hochtouristik in den osterreichischen Alpen (1890), and E. Richter, Die Erschliessung der Ostalpen (3 vols., 1894). The detailed history of Mont Blanc has been written by Ch. Durier, Le Mont Blanc (1877, 4th ed., 1897), and C. E. Mathews, The Annals of Mont Blanc (1898). Lives of some of the most celebrated mountain guides have been written in C. D. Cunningham and W. de W. Abney, Pioneers of the Alps (2nd ed., 1888).

(2) Maps. - There is no good modern and fairly large-scale map of the entire chain of the Alps. But L. Ravenstein's maps (scale :250,000) of the Swiss Alps (2 sheets) and of the Eastern Alps (8 sheets) include the whole chain, save that portion south of the range of Mont Blanc.

All the countries which include Alpine districts have now issued official Government maps. The French map on a scale of 1: 80,000 is clearer and more accurate than that on a scale of 1: 100,000. The Italian Government has published maps on scales of 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000, the Austrian on a scale of 1: 75,000, and the Bavarian on a scale of 1: 50,000. But the most splendid Government map of all is that put forth by the Swiss Federal Topographical Bureau, under the title of Siegfried Atlas (scale 1 :50,000 for the Alpine districts), which has quite superseded the Dufour Map (scale 1: loo,000), the history of which was published in 1896. For maps of the Swiss Alps and their neighbours, see J. H. Graf, Literatur der Landesvermessung (1896, with a supplement).

A few of the best special maps of certain districts may be mentioned - such as H. Duhamel's maps of the Dauphine Alps (4 sheets on a scale of 1:100,000, 1889, 2nd ed., 1892), and that of the range of Mont Blanc (scale 1:50,000, 1896, 2nd ed., 1905), by X. Imfeld and L. Kurz. The German and Austrian Alpine Club is publishing a very fine set of maps (scale I: 50,000) of the Eastern Alps, which are clearer and better than the Austrian Government's Topographische Detailkarten (11 sheets, scale 1: 50,000).

(W. A. B. C.) io. Geology. - The Alps form but a small portion of a great zone of crumpling which stretches, in a series of curves, from the Atlas Mountains to the Himalayas. Within this zone the crust of the earth has been ridged up into a complex system of creases or folds, out of which the great mountain chains of southern Europe and Asia have been carved by atmospheric agencies. Superficially, the continuity of the zone is broken at intervals by gaps of greater or less extent; but these are due, in part at least, to the subsidence of portions of the folded belt and their subsequent burial by more recent accumulations. Such a gap is that between the Alps and the Carpathians, but a glance at a geological map of the region will show that the folding was probably at one time continuous. Leaving, however, the larger question of the connexion between the great mountain ranges of Europe and Asia, we find that the Alps are formed of a series of wrinkles or folds, one behind another, frequently arranged en echelon. The folds run, in general, in the direction of the chain, and together they form an arc around the plain of Lombardy and Piedmont. Outside this arc lies a depression along which the waters of the upper Danube and the lower Rhone find their way towards the sea; and beyond rise the ancient crystalline masses of Bohemia, the Black Forest and the central plateau of France, together with the intervening Mesozoic beds of southern Germany and the Jura. The depression is filled by Miocene and later beds, which for the most part lie flat and undisturbed as they were laid down. Beyond the depression also, excepting in the Jura Mountains, there is no sign of the folding which has raised the Alpine chain. Some of the older beds indeed are crumpled, but the folding is altogether different in age and in direction from that of the Alps.

To assist in forming a clear idea of the relations of the Alps to the surrounding regions, a simple illustration will suffice. Upon a table covered by a cloth lay two books in the relative positions shown in figure. The book A represents the central plateau of France and the book B represents the rocks of Bohemia and southern Germany. If the two hands be placed flat upon the table, in the angle between the two books, and the cloth pushed towards the corner, it will at once be rucked up into a fold which will follow a curve not unlike that of the Alps. The precise character and form of the folds produced will depend upon the nature of the cloth and other accidental circumFIG. i. - Looking down stances; but with a little adjustment on the table. nGt only a representation of the chain of the Alps, but even a subsidiary fold in front in the position of the Jura Mountains may be obtained. Imperfect though this illustration may be, it will serve to explain the modern conception of the forces concerned in the formation of the Alps. Within the crust of the earth, whether by the contraction of the interior or in any other way, tangential pressures were set up. Since the crust is not of uniform strength throughout, only the weaker portions yielded to the pressure; and these were crumpled up against the more resisting portions and sometimes were pushed over them. In the case of the Alps it seems natural enough that the crystalline masses of Bohemia, the Black Forest and the central plateau of France should be firmer than the more modern sedimentary deposits; but it is not so easy to understand why the Mesozoic rocks of southern Germany resisted the folding, while those of the Jura yielded. It should, however, be borne in mind that the resisting mass is not necessarily at the surface. Such is in outline the process by which the Alps were elevated; but when the chain is examined in detail, it is found that its history has not been uniform throughout; and it will be convenient, for purposes of description, to divide it into three portions, which may be called the Eastern Alps, the Swiss Alps, and the Western Alps.

The Eastern Alps consist of a central mass of crystalline and schistose rocks flanked on each side by a zone of Mesozoic beds and on the north by an outer band of Tertiary deposits. On the Italian side there is usually no zone of folded Tertiaries and the Mesozoic band forms the southern border of the chain. Each of these zones is folded within itself, and the folding is more intense on the Bavarian side than on the Italian, the folds often leaning over towards the north. The Tertiary zone of the northern border is of especial significance and is remarkable for its extent and uniformity. It is divided longitudinally into an outer zone of Molasse and an inner zone of Flysch. The line of separation is very clearly defined; nowhere does the Molasse pass beyond it to the south and nowhere does the Flysch extend beyond it to the north. The Molasse, in the neighbourhood of the mountains, consists chiefly of conglomerates and sandstones, and the Flysch consists of sandstones and shales; but the Molasse is of Miocene and Oligocene age, while the Flysch is mainly Eocene. The relations of the two series are never normal. Along the line of contact, which is often a fault, the oldest beds of the Molasse crop out, and they are invariably overturned and plunge beneath the Flysch. A few miles farther north these same beds rise again to the surface at the summit of an anticlinal which runs parallel to the chain. Beyond this point all signs of folding gradually cease and the beds lie flat and undisturbed.

The Flysch is an extraordinarily thick and uniform mass of sandstones and shales with scarcely any fossils excepting fucoids. It is intensely folded and is constantly separated from the Mesozoic zone by a fault. Throughout the whole extent of the Eastern Alps it is strictly limited to the belt between this fault and the marginal zone of Molasse. Eocene beds, indeed, penetrate farther within the chain, but these are limestones with nummulites or lignite-bearing shales and have nothing in common with the Flysch. But although the Flysch is so uniform in character, and although it forms so well-defined a zone, it is not everywhere of the same age. In the west it seems to be entirely Eocene, but towards the east intercalated beds with Inoceramus, &c., indicate that it is partly of Cretaceous age. It is, in fact, a facies and nothing more. The most probable explanation is that the Flysch consists of the detritus washed down from the hills upon the flanks of which it was formed. It bears, indeed, very much the same relation to the Alps that the Siwalik beds of India bear to the Himalayas.

The Mesozoic belt of the Bavarian and Austrian Alps consists mainly of the Trias, Jurassic and Cretaceous beds playing a comparatively subordinate part. But between the Trias of the Eastern Alps and the Trias of the region beyond the Alpine folds there is a striking contrast. North of the Danube, in Germany as in England, red sandstones, shales and conglomerates predominate, together with beds of gypsum and salt. It was a continental formation, such as is now being formed within the desert belt of the globe. Only the Muschelkalk, which does not reach so far as England, and the uppermost beds, the Rhaetic, contain fossils in any abundance. The Trias of the Eastern Alps, on the other hand, consists chiefly of great masses of limestone with an abundant fauna, and is clearly of marine origin. The Jurassic and Cretaceous beds also differ, though in a less degree, from those of northern Europe. They consist largely of limestone; but marls and sandstones are by no means rare, and there are considerable gaps in the succession indicating that the region was not continuously beneath the sea. Tithonian fossils, characteristic of southern Europe, occur in the upper Jurassic, while the Gosau beds, belonging to the upper Cretaceous, contain many of the forms of the Hippuritic sea. Nevertheless, the difference between the deposits on the two sides of the chain shows that the central ridge was dry land during at least a part of the period.

The central zone of crystalline rock consists chiefly of gneisses and schists, but folded within it is a band of Palaeozoic rocks which divides it longitudinally into two parts. Palaeozoic beds also occur along the northern and southern margins of the crystalline zone. The age of a great part of the Palaeozoic belts is somewhat uncertain, but Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian fossils have been found in various parts of the chain, and it is not unlikely that even the Cambrian may be represented.

The Mesozoic belt of the southern border of the chain extends from Lago Maggiore eastwards. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds play a larger part than on the northern border, but the Trias still predominates. On the west the belt is narrow, but towards the east it gradually widens, and north of Lago di Garda its northern boundary is suddenly deflected to the north and the zone spreads out so as to include the whole of the Dolomite mountains of Tirol. The sudden widening is due to the great Judicaria fault, which runs from Lago d'Idro to the neighbourhood of Meran, where it bends round to the east. The throw of this fault may be as much as 2000 metres, and the drop is on its south-east side, i.e. towards the Adriatic. It is probable, indeed, that the fault took a large share in the formation of the Adriatic depression. On the whole, the Mesozoic beds of the southern border of the Alps points to a deeper and less troubled sea than those of the north. Clastic sediments are less abundant and there are fewer breaks in the succession. The folding, moreover, is less intense; but in the Dolomites of Tirol there are great outbursts of igneous rock, and faulting has occurred on an extensive scale.

Triassic Permian Plutonic Rocks Volcanic Rocks West of a line which runs from Lake Constance to Lago Maggiore the zones already described do not continue with the same simplicity. The zone of the Molasse is little changed, but the Flysch is partly folded in the Mesozoic belt and no longer forms an absolutely independent band. The Trias has almost disappeared, and what remains is not of the marine type characteristic of the Eastern Alps but belongs rather to the continental facies which occurs in Germany and France. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds form the greater part of the Mesozoic band. On the southern side of the chain the Mesozoic zone disappears entirely a little west of Lago Maggiore and the crystalline rocks rise directly from the plain.

Perhaps the strangest problem in the whole of Switzerland is that presented by the so-called Klip pen. Within the Alps, when normally developed, we may trace the individual folds for long distances and observe how they arise, increase and die out, to be replaced by others of similar direction. But at times, within or on the border of the northern Eocene trough, the continuity of the folds is suddenly broken by mountain masses of quite different constitution. These are the Klippen, and they are especially important in the Chablais and between the Lakes of Geneva and Thun. Not only is the folding of the Klippen wholly independent of that of the zone in which they lie, but the rocks which form them are of foreign facies. They consist chiefly of Jurassic and Triassic beds, but it is the Trias and the Jura of the Eastern Alps and not of Switzerland. Moreover, although they interrupt the folding of the zone in which they occur, they do not disturb it: they do not, in fact, rise through the zone, but lie upon it like unconformable masses - in other words, they rest upon a thrust-plane. Whence they have come into their present position is by no means clear; but the character of the beds which form them indicates a distant origin. It is interesting to note, in this Quaternary Tertiary Cretaceous Jurassic 1,;'-,"i Eocene & Jurassic Range �' ? jJr % ,?? ..

c a Sc a Sc aSG, I; 1 ^?, [[[Geology A]]. -.. Ter ?, (-- �?s'`4" Gn Metamorphic Rocks Subalpine Alagelfluh Rigi Ter Jr Schiichenthal Cretaceous & Eocene Range A Aar Massif Gotthard Massif, ,',�?' - � ` hal Meient '?�r ??_?f e ? �. P Sc Ga P Gn P Ga -a Seegebirge gl Staluedro iaMed q`/ (JJJ?????,,,ryryry 4% Gn Tr T r Tessiner Mass 'B. ' 'ter,-.. A /inzona h1.S.Saluatore Ponz. d'Arzo Cr Pq C Tr ' PgL. o Pedrinate t` ,y /? ` Balerna  ??????IY??????9??lA??brm?dl?U%%??8?/DfIA?????????? ??``??? ??? - ................ - - ,.�. Lombardy 9 ?[?? fi!9?'.[?a 3x A?? ?``?a?.?.?'ggnuoNbC ti?o`AVa1Ra.?scir?,..s: na aa ?? eaec.0a' ?i? ?? ?`?"'? .�..:? occh`t.?90uu?

B Sc. Sericitic Schists =' a. Amphibolite Gn. Gneiss & Mica Schist A-G. Augen Gneiss Schmidt Ter. Tertiary Cr. Cretaceous Jr. Jurassic Tr. Triassic C. Carboniferous & Verrucano Pq. Quartz Porphyry Pp. Porphyrite d Gr. Granite t ? P. Protogine connexion, that the pebbles of the Swiss Molasse are not generally such as would be derived from the neighbouring mountains, but resemble the rocks of the Eastern Alps. The Klippen are, no doubt, the remains of a much larger mass brought into the region upon a thrust-plane, and much of the Molasse has been derived from its destruction. Although the explanation here given of the origin of the Swiss Klippen is that which now is usually accepted, it should be mentioned that other theories have been proposed to account for their peculiarities.

In the Western Alps the outer border of Molasse persists; but it no longer forms so well-defined a zone, and strips are infolded amongst the older rocks. The Eocene has altogether w Alps. lost its independence as a band and occurs only in patches within the Mesozoic zone. The latter, on the other hand, assumes a greater importance and forms nearly the whole of the subalpine ranges. It consists almost entirely of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, the Trias in these outer ranges being of very limited extent. The main chain is formed chiefly of crystalline and schistose rocks, which on the Italian side rise directly from the plain without any intervening zone of Mesozoic beds. But it is divided longitudinally by a well-marked belt of stratified deposits, known as the zone of the Briangonnais, composed chiefly of Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic beds. The origin of the schistose rocks has long been under discussion, and controversy has centred more particularly around the schistes lustres, which are held by some to be of Triassic age and by others to be pre-Carboniferous and even, perhaps, Archaean. Partly in consequence of the uncertainty as to the age of these and other rocks, there is considerable difference of opinion as to the structure of the Western Alps. According to the view most widely accepted in France the main chain as a whole forms a fan, the folds on the eastern side leaning towards Italy and those on the western side towards France. The zone of the Briangonnais lies in the middle of the fan.

From the above account it will at once appear that between the convex and the concave margins of the Alpine chain there is a striking difference. Upon the outer side of the arc the central zone of crystalline rocks is flanked by Mesozoic and Tertiary belts; towards the west, indeed, the individuality of these belts is lost, to a large extent, but the rocks remain. Upon the inner side the Tertiary band is found only in the eastern part of the chain, while towards the west, first the Tertiary and then the Mesozoic band disappears against the modern deposits of the low land. The appearance is strongly suggestive of faulting; and probably the southern margin of the chain lies buried beneath the plain of northern Italy.

The chain of the Alps was not raised by a single movement nor in a single geological period. Its growth was gradual and has not been uniform throughout. In the Eastern Alps the central ridge seems to have been in existence at least ag as early as Triassic times, but it has since been subject p to several oscillations. The most conspicuous folding, that of the Mesozoic and Tertiary belts, must have occurred in Tertiary times, and it was not completed till the Miocene period. The structure of the zones in the Bavarian Alps seems to suggest that the chain grew outwards in successive stages, each stage being marked by the formation of a boundary fault. A precisely similar structure is seen in the Himalayas.