Bible Encyclopedias
Magic Square

1911 Encyclopedia Britannica

A square divided into equal squares, like a chess-board, in each of which is placed one of a series of consecutive numbers from i up to the square of the number of cells in a side, in such a manner that the sum of the numbers in each row or column and in each diagonal is constant.

200

217

232

2 49

2 5

4 o

r04

221

136

1 53

168

185

2 6

250

231

218

r99

186

267

2 54

1 35

122

103

198

219

230

251

3 8

102

123

1 34

155

166

187

2 8

252

229

220

297

r88

165

156

1 33

124

101

201

226

2 33

2 4 8

4 2

5 6

105

120

1J7

152

169

184

1 0

2 47

234

215

202

183

270

151

238

r19

rob

203

214

2 35

246

107

118

239

150

171

r82

2 45

236

213

204

181

172

249

140

117

108

205

212

2 37

2 44

1 3

5 2

209

r16

241

248

273

280

2 43

238

zrr

206

1 79

2 74

1 47

142

115

1r0

7 8

207

2 1 0

2 39

242

5 0

111

114

1 4 3.

146

1 75

278

241

240

209

z03

1 77

2 7 6

1 45

1 44

113

11z

196

22 2

228

2 53

9 3

zoo

125

132

1 57

164

189

3 o

2 54

227

222

1 95

190

163

258

132

126

1 94

223

226

2 55

3 1

6 3

1 27

x 3

1 59

z 6

192

6 4

256

225

224

1 9 3

192

i 6

r60

2 29

128

9 6

From a very early period these squares engaged the attention of mathematicians, especially such as possessed a love of the marvellous, or sought to win for themselves a superstitious regard. They were then supposed to possess magical properties, and were worn, as in India at the present day, engraven in metal or stone, as amulets or talismans. According to the old astro logers, relations subsisted between these squares and the planets. In later times such squares ranked only as mathematical curiosities; till at last their mode of construction was systematically investigated. The earliest known writer on the subject was Emanuel Moscopulus, a Greek (4th or 5th century). Bernard Frenicle de Bessy constructed magic squares such that if one or more of the encircling bands of numbers be taken away the remaining central squares are still magical. Subsequently Poignard constructed squares with numbers in arithmetical pro FIG. I.

gression, having the magical summations. The later researches of Phillipe de la Hire, recorded in the Mdmoires de l'Academie Royale in 1705, are interesting as giving general methods of construction. He has there collected the results of the labours of earlier pioneers; but the subject has nov.' been fully systematized, and extended to cubes.

Two interesting magical arrangements are said to have been given by Benjamin Franklin; these have been termed the "magic square of squares" and the "magic circle of circles." The first (fig. 1) is a square divided into 256 squares, i.e. 16 squares along a side, in FIG 2.

which are placed the numbers from i to 256. The chief properties of this square are (I) the sum of the 16 numbers in any row or column is 2056; (2) the sum of the 8 numbers in half of any row or column is 1028, i.e. one half of 2056; (3) the sum of the numbers in two halfdiagonals equals 2056; (4) the sum of the four corner numbers of the great square and the four central numbers equals 1028; (5) the sum of the numbers in any 16 cells of the large square which themselves are disposed in a square is 2056. This square has other curious

properties. The "magic circle of circles" (fig. 2) consists of eight annular rings and a central circle, each ring being divided into eight cells by radii drawn from the centre; there are therefore 65 cells. The number 12 is placed in the centre, and the consecutive numbers 13 to 75 are placed in the other cells. The properties of this figure include the following: (I) the sum of the eight numbers in any ring together with the central number 12 is 360, the number of degrees in a circle; (2) the sum of the eight numbers in any set of radial cells together with the central number is 360; (3) the sum of the numbers in any four adjoining cells, either annular, radial, or both radial and two annular, together with half the central number, is 180.

1 7

Squares whose Roots are Even. - These were constructed in various ways, similar to that of 4 in figs. 14, 15 and 16. The numbers in fig. 15 being multiplied by 4, and the squares of figs. 14 and 15 being superimposed, give fig. 16. The application of 6 z II 12 Construction of Magic Squares. - A square of 5 (fig. 3) has adjoining it one of the eight equal squares by which any square may be conceived to be surrounded, each of which has two sides resting on adjoining squares, while four have sides resting on the surrounded square, and four meet it only at its four angles. I, 2, 3 are placed along the path of a knight in chess; 4, along the same path, would fall in a cell of the outer square, and is placed instead in the corresponding cell of the original square; 5 then falls within the square. a, b, c, d are placed diagonally in the square; but e enters the outer square, and is removed thence to the same cell of the square it had left. a, 0, 7, 5, e pursue another regular course; and the diagram shows how that course is recorded in the square they have twice left. Whichever of the eight surrounding squares may be entered, the corresponding cell of the central square is taken instead. The I, 2, 3, ...., a, b, c, ...., a, (3, 'y, .... are said to lie in "paths." Squares whose Roots are Odd. - Figs 4, 5, and 6 exhibit one of the earliest methods of constructing magic squares. Here the 17 ZI :8 Z2 23 24 FIG. IO. FIG. II.

-6

-II

- I

- 7

-10

-s

this method to squares the half of whose roots are odd requires a complicated adjustment. Squares whose half root is a multiple of 4, and in which there are summations along all the diagonal FIG. 3. -9 :2 7 - 8 -3 10 -4 6 -12 FIG. 12. FIG. 13. paths, may be formed, by observing, as when the root is 4, that the series 1 to 16 may be changed into the series 15, 13, .... 3, 1, - 1, - 3, .... - 13, - 15, by multiplying each number by 2 I 15 14434 0 3 3 8 4 II ' '24 5033 4 20647 9 12 3 2 16 4 9 Ta 4 0 3 25 3 3 a 5 a 84320 II I.

S 2 17 4 I 9 13533 0 s 4 21 4 3) 4 16 a 3 132400318605 5 3 4 a ' '4 2 5 3 2 4 14 ' '22 FIG. 14. FIG 15 FIG. 16. and subtracting 17; and, vice versa, by adding 17 to each of the latter, and dividing by 2. The diagonal summations of a square, filled as in fig. 17, make zero; and, to obtain the same in the rows 3340 23 I 2 19 7 15 FIG. 4. FIG. 5. FIG. 6.

3's in fig. 4 and 2's in fig. 5 are placed in opposite diagonals to secure the two diagonal summations; then each number in fig. 5 is multiplied by 5 and added to that in the corresponding square in fig. 4, which gives the square of fig. 6. Figs. 7, 8 and 9 give De la Hire's method; the squares of figs. 7 and 8, being combined, give the magic square of fig. 9. C. G. Bachet arranged the numbers as in fig. Io, where there are three numbers in each of four surrounding squares; these being placed in the corresponding cells of the central square, the square of fig. I I is formed. He also con A p2 7 14 4 a: a2 -3 II -9 P. A 6 12 15 a3 a4 7 -25 -s 13 8 Io -P, -p2 3 :3 -a1 -a2 -II 9 - I 3 16 II 5 a -p3 -P4 -a 3 -a4 S 15 -13 - 7 FIG 17 FIG. 18 FIG. 19._ and columns, we must assign such values to the p's and q's as satisfy the equations p i + P2 + al + az = 0, P3 + P4 + a3 + a4 = o, pi + p3 - al - a3 = 0, and p2 -I- p 4 - a 2 - a 4 = 0, - a solution of which is readily obtained by inspection, as in fig. 18; this leads to the square, fig. 19. When the root is 8, the upper four subsidiary rows may at once be written, as in fig, 20; then, if 65 be added to each, and the sums halved, the square is completed. In such squares as these, the two opposite squares about the same diagonal (except that of 4) may be turned through any number of right angles, in the same direction, without altering the summations.

-1

-7

-33

-39

-II

-13

1 5

4 1

-43

-45

-19

-21

-5 1

-53

- 2 5 27

-3 1

-57

-63

17 6 1 54523 3 14 15 ,:0 164324 3 12 102510 155020 8 4 II 20 22453 5 15 0 20 10 18934 25 2 I 2 5 3 15 20 :O 5 0 25 13 a I 7 3 15 19 5 5 20 ' '1 0 4 FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 9.

structed squares such that if one or more outer bands of numbers are removed the remaining central squares are magical. His method of forming them may be understood from a square of 5. Here each summation is 5 X13; if therefore 13 is subtracted from each number, the summations will be zero, and the twenty-five cells will contain the series t 1, = 2, 3, .... 12, the odd cell having o. The central square of 3 is formed with four of the twelve numbers with + and - signs and zero in the middle; the band is filled up with the rest, as in fig. 12; then, 13 being added in each cell, the magic square of fig. 13 is obtained.

FIG 20 Nasik Squares. - Squares that have many more summations than in rows, columns and diagonals were investigated by A. H. Frost ( Cambridge Math. Jour., 1857), and called Nasik squares, from the town in India where he resided; and he extended the method to cubes, various sections of which have the same singular properties. In order to understand their construction it will be necessary to

consider carefully fig. 21, which shows that, when the root is a prime, and not composite, number, as 7, eight letters a, b, ... h may proceed from any, the same, cell, suppose that marked o, each letter being repeated in the cells along different paths. These eight paths are called "normal paths," their number being one more than the root. Observe here that, excepting the cells from which any two letters start, they do not occupy again the same cell, and that two letters, starting from any two different cells along different paths, will appear together in one and only one cell. Hence, if p, be placed in the cells of one of the n+I normal paths, each of the remaining n normal paths will contain one, and only one, of these p i 's. If now we fill each row with p 2, p 3,.. p m in the same order, commencing from the p i in that row, the p 2 's, p 3 's and p n 's will lie each in a path similar to that of p i, and each of the n normal paths will contain one, and only one, of the letters p„ p„, ...pm, whose sum will be Ep. Similarly, if q i be placed along any of the normal paths, different from that of the p's, and each row filled as above with the letters q 2, 3,. .. q,l, the sum of the q's along any normal path different from that of the q i will be Eq. The n 2 cells of the square will now be found to contain all the combinations of the p's and q's; and if the q's be multiplied by n, the p's made equal to I, 2, ... n, and the q's to 0, I, 2,... (n - I) in any order, the Nasik square of n will be obtained, and the summations along all the normal paths, except those traversed by the p's and q's, will be the constant Enq -}- Ep. When the root is an odd composite number, as 9, 15, &c.. it will be found that in some paths, different from the two along which the p i and q i were placed, instead of having each of the p's and q's, some will be wanting, while some are repeated. Thus, in the case of 9, the triplets, p p p 7, p 2 p 5 p 8, - 3l 8p 9, and g 144 g ?, g 9 g 5 q 3

g 3 g 6 q 9 o ccur, each triplet thrice, along paths whose summation should be-EP 45 and Er 36. But if we make p i, p 2, ... p9, = 3, 6, 5, 4, 7, 9, 8, 2, and the r i, r2, ...r 9 =o, 2, 5, 4, 3, 6, 8, 7, 1, thrice each of the above sets of triplets will equal Ep and Eq respectively. If now the q's are multiplied by 9, and added to the p's in their several cells, we shall have a Nasik square, with a constant summation along eight of its ten normal paths. In fig. 22 the numbers are in the nonary scale; that in the centre is the middle one of I to 9 2, and the sum of pair of numbers equidistant from and opposite to the central 45 is twice 45; and the sum of any number and the 8 numbers 3 from it, diagonally, and in its row and 22. column, is the constant Nasi cal summation, e.g. 72 and 32, 22, 7 6, 77, 26, 37, 36, 27. The numbers in fig. 22 being kept in the nonary scale, it is not necessary to add any nine of them together in order to test the Nasical summation; for, taking the first column, the figures in the place of units are seen at once to form the series, I, 2, 3,....9, and those in the other place three triplets of 6, I, 5. For the squares of 15 the p's and q's may be respectively I, 2, Io, 8, 6, 14, 15, II, 4, 13, 9, 7, 3, 12, 5, and 0, I, 9, 7, 5, 13, 14, JO., 3, 12, 8, 6, 2, II, 4, where five times the sum of every third number and three times the sum of every fifth number makes Ep and /q; then, if the q's are multiplied by 15, and added to the p's, the Nasik square of 15 is obtained. When the root is the multiple of 4, the same process gives us, for the square of 4, fig. 23. Here the columns give Ep, but alternately 2q 1, 2q 3, and 2q3, 2q 4; and the rows give Eq, FIG. 23. but alternately 2p i, 2p3, and 2p 21 2p 4; the diagonals giving Ep and Eq. If p i, p 2, p 3, p4 and q„ q 2, q 3, q 4 be I, 2, 4, 3, and 0, I, 3, 2, we have the Nasik square of fig. 24. A square like this is engraved in the Sanskrit character on the gate of the fort of Gwalior, in India. The squares of higher multiples of 4 are readily obtained by a similar adjustment.

Nasik Cubes. A Nasik cube is composed of n 3 small equal cubes, here called cubelets, in the centres of which the natural numbers from 1 to n 3 are so placed that every section of the cube by planes perpendicular to an edge has the properties of a Nasik square; also sections by planes perpendicular to a face, and passing through the cubelet centres of any path of Nasical summation in that face. Fig. 25 shows by dots the way in which these cubes are constructed.

^ 1

A dot is here placed on three faces of a cubelet at the corner, showing that this cubelet belongs to each of the faces AOB, BOC, COA, of the cube. Dots are placed on the cubelets of some path of AOB (here the knight's path), beginning from 0, also on the cubelets of a knight's path in BOC. Dots are now placed in the cubelets of similar paths to that on BOC in the other six sections parallel to BOC, starting from their dots in AOB. Forty-nine of the three hundred and forty-three cubelets will now contain a dot; and it will be observed that the dots in sections perpendicular to BO have arranged themselves in similar paths. In this manner, p i, q i, ri being placed in the corner cubelet 0, these letters are severally placed in the cubelets of three different paths of AOB, and again along any similar paths in the seven sections perpendicular to AO, starting from the letters' position in AOB. Next, p 2 g 2r2, p, g 3 r 3,. p 7 g 7 r, are placed in the other cubelets of the edge AO, and dispersed in the same manner as pigiri. Every cubelet will then be found to contain a different combination of the p's, q's and r's. If therefore the p's are made equal to I, 2, 7, and the q's and r's to 0, I, 2, ... 6, in any order, and the q's multiplied by 7, and the r's by 7 2, then, as in the case of the squares, the 7 3 cubelets will contain the numbers from I to 7 3, and the Nasical summations will be /7 2 r+/7q -{- p. If 2, 4, 5 be values of r,p,q, the number for that cubelet is written 245 in the septenary scale, and if all the cubelet numbers are kept thus, the paths along which summations are found can be seen without adding, as the seven numbers would contain I, 2, 3,. .. 7 in the unit place, and 0, I, 2, ... 6 in each of the other places. In all Nasik cubes, if such values are given to the letters on the central cubelet that the number is the middle one of the series I to n 3, the sum of all the pairs of numbers opposite FIG. 26.

2 8

3 6

2 4

to and equidistant from the middle number is the double of it. Also, if around a Nasik cube the twenty-six surrounding equal cubes be placed with their cells filled with the same numbers, and their corresponding faces looking the same way,-and if the surrounding space be conceived thus filled with similar cubes, and a straight line of unlimited length be drawn through any two cubelet centres, one in each of any two cubes,-the numbers along that line will be found to recur in groups of seven, which (except in the three cases where the same p, q or r recur in the group) together make the Nasical summation of the cube. Further, if we take n similarly filled Nasik cubes of n, n new letters, s i, s2,...s, , can be so placed, one in each of the n 4 cubelets of this group of n cubes, that each shall contain a different combination of the p's, q's, r's and s's. This is done by placing s, on each of the n 2 cubelets of the first cube that FIG. 27. FIG. 28.

contain p i, and on the n 2 cubelets of the 2d, 3d, ... and nth cube that contain p 2, p 3, ... p n respectively. This process is repeated with 5 3 , beginning with the cube at which we ended, and so on with the other s's; the n 4 cubelets, after multiplying the q's, r's, and s's by n, n 2, and n 3 respectively, will now be filled with the numbers from 1 to n 4, and the constant summation will be En 3 s -{- En 2 r Enq This process may be carried on without limit; for, if the n cubes are placed in a row with their faces resting on each other, and the corresponding faces looking the same way, n such parallelepipeds might be put side by side, and the n 5 cubelets of this solid square be Nasically filled by the introduction of a new letter t; while, by introducing another letter, the nÂ° cubelets of the compound cube of n 3 Nasik B FIG. 25-Nasik Cube.

FIG. 21.

2 4

4 8

2 5

5 1

5 2

2 3

5 8

1 9

3 1

6 9

8 5

4 6

3 2

6 7

6 4

8 3

7 8

4 1

6 5

5 6

4 2

FIG.

/4'.73 15 3 6 ,1391 t,9, 1, 13 75193 1393 1194 1'4 1394 14485 16 x3 iz 9 7 FIG 24 cubes might be filled by the numbers from i to n s, and so ad infinitum. When the root is an odd composite number the values of the three groups of letters have to be adjusted as in squares, also in cubes of an even root. A similar process enables us to place successive numbers in the cells of several equal squares in which the Nasical summations are the same in each, as in fig. 26.

Among the many ingenious squares given by various writers, this article may justly close with two by L. Euler, in the Histoire de l'academie royale des sciences (Berlin, 1759). In fig. 27 the natural numbers show the path of a knight that moves within an odd square in such a manner that the sum of pairs of numbers opposite to and equidistant from the middle figure is its double. In fig. 28 the knight returns to its starting cell in a square of 6, and the difference between the pairs of numbers opposite to and equidistant from the middle point is 18.

A model consisting of seven Nasik cubes, constructed by A. H. Frost, is in the SouthKensington Museum. The centres of the cubes are placed at equal distances in a straight line, the similar faces looking the same way in a plane parallel to that line. Each of the cubes has seven parallel glass plates, to which, on one side, the seven numbers in the septenary scale are fixed, and behind each, on the other side, its value in the common scale. 1201, the middle number from I to 7 4, occupies the central cubelet of the middle cube. Besides each cube having separately the same Nasical summation, this is also obtained by adding the numbers in any seven similarly situated cubelets, one in each cube. Also, the sum of all pairs of numbers, in a straight line, through the central cube of the system, equidistant from it, in whatever cubes they are, is twice 1201. (A. H. F.) Fennell's Magic Ring. - It has been noticed that the numbers of magic squares, of which the extension by repeating the rows and columns of n numbers so as to form a square of 2n-1 sides yields n 2 magic squares of n sides, are arranged as if they were all inscribed round a cylinder and also all inscribed on another cylinder at right angles to the first. C. A. M. Fennell explains this apparent anomaly by describing such magic squares as Mercator's projections, so to say, of "magic rings." The surface of these magic rings is symmetrically divided into 1/ 2 quadrangular compartments or cells by n equidistant zonal circles parallel to the circular axis of the ring and by n transverse circles which divide each of the n zones between any two neighbouring zonal circles into n equal quadrangular cells, while the zonal circles divide the sections between two neighbouring transverse circles into n unequal quadrangular cells. The diagonals of cells which follow each other passing once only through each zone and section, form similar and equal closed curves passing once quite round the circular axis of the ring and once quite round the centre of the ring. The position of each number is regarded as the intersection of two diagonals of its cell. The numbers are most easily seen if the smallest circle on the surface of the ring, which circle is concentric with the axis, be one of the zonal circles. In a perfect magic ring the sum of the numbers of the cells whose diagonals form any one of the 2n diagonal curves aforesaid is Zn(n 2 1) with or without increment, i.e. is the same sum as that of the numbers in each zone and each transverse section. But if n be 3 or a multiple of 3, only from 2 ton of the diagonal curves carry the sum in question, so that the magic rings are imperfect; and any set of numbers which can be arranged to make a perfect magic ring or magic square can also make an imperfect magic ring, e.g. the set 1 to 16 if the numbers 16 lie thus on a diagonal curve instead of in the order 1, 6, 16 1 1. From a perfect magic ring of n 2 cells containing one number each, n 2 distinct magic squares can be read off; as the four numbers round each intersection of a zonal circle and a transverse circle constitute corner numbers of a magic square. The shape of a magic ring gives it the function of an indefinite extension in all directions of each of the aforesaid n 2 magic squares. (C. A. M. F.) See F. E. A. Lucas, Re'creations mathe'matiques (1891-1894); W.W.R. Ball, Mathematical Recreations (1892); W. E. M. G. Ahrens, Mathematische Unterhaltungen and Spiele (1901); H. C. H. Schubert, Mathematische Mussestunden (1900). A very detailed work is B. Violle, Traite complet des carres magiques (3 vols., 1837-1838). The theory of "path nasiks" is dealt with in a pamphlet by C. Planck (1906).

Bibliography Information
Chisholm, Hugh, General Editor. Entry for 'Magic Square'. 1911 Encyclopedia Britanica. https://www.studylight.org/encyclopedias/eng/bri/m/magic-square.html. 1910.

Bible Encyclopedias Magic Square

1911 Encyclopedia Britannica

Bible Encyclopedias
Magic Square